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Test #2 Biology > ch 40 overview: diverse forms, common challenges > Flashcards

ch 40 overview: diverse forms, common challenges Flashcards

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1
Q

anatomy

A

the study of the biological form of an organism

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2
Q

physiology

A

the study of the biological functions an organism performs

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3
Q

what has the comparative study of animals revealed?

A

the comparative study of animals reveals that form and function are closely correlated

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4
Q

what affects an animal interaction with its environment?

A

size and shape affect the way an animal interacts with its environment

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5
Q

in animals, what is determined by the genome?

A

many different animal body plans have evolved and are determined by the genome

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6
Q

what do physical laws constrain?

A

physical laws constrain strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange

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7
Q

what needs to happen when animals increase in size?

A

as animal increase in size, their skeletons must be proportionately larger to support their mass

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8
Q

what does evolutionary convergence reflect?

A

evolutionary convergence reflects different species’ adaptations to a similar environmental challenge

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9
Q

what materials must be exchanges across the cell membranes of animal cells?

A

materials such as nutrients, waste products, and gases must be exchanged across the cell membranes of animal cells

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10
Q

what is the rate of exchange proportional to?

A

rate of exchange is proportional to a cell’s surface area while the amount of exchange material is proportional to a cell’s volume

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11
Q

true or false: a single-celled protist living in water has a sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to service its entire volume of cytoplasm

A

true

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12
Q

how thick are the body walls of mutlicellular organisms?

A

multicellular organisms with a saclike body plan have body walls that are only two cells thick, facilitating diffusion of materials.

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13
Q

in flat animals such as tapeworms, how large is the distance between cells?

A

in flat animals such as tapeworms, the distance between cells and the environment is minimized

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14
Q

what do more complex organisms have?

A

more complex organisms have highly folded internal surfaces for exchanging materials.

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15
Q

interstitial fluid

A

allows for the movement of material into and out of cells

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16
Q

in vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with what?

A

interstitial fluid

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17
Q

how is having a complex body plan beneficial to an animal living in a variable environment?

A

a complex body plan helps an animal living in a variable environment to maintain a relatively stable internal environment

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18
Q

what are most animals composed of?

A

most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into tissues that have different functions

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19
Q

what do tissues make up?

A

tissues make up organs, which together make up organ systems

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20
Q

do organs belong to more than one organ system?

A

some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to more than one organ system

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21
Q

what are the main components of the digestive system?

A

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus

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22
Q

what are the main functions of the digestive system?

A

food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)

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23
Q

what are the main components of the circulatory system?

A

heart, blood vessels, blood

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24
Q

what are the main functions of the circulatory system?

A

internal distribution of materials

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25
Q

what are the main components of the respiratory system?

A

lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes

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26
Q

what are the main functions of the respiratory system?

A

gas exchange (uptake of oxygen; disposal of carbon dioxide)

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27
Q

what are the main components of the immune and lymphatic system?

A

bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen,lymph vessels, white blood cells

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28
Q

what are the main functions of the immune and lymphatic systems?

A

body defense (fighting infections and cancer)

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29
Q

what are the main components of the excretory system?

A

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

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30
Q

what are the main functions of the excretory system?

A

disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood

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31
Q

what are the main components of the endocrine system?

A

pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone-secreting glands

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32
Q

what are the main functiosn of the endocrine system?

A

coordination of body activities (such as digestion and metabolism)

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33
Q

what are the main components of the reproductive system?

A

ovaries or testes and associated organs

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34
Q

what are the main functions of the reproductive system?

A

reproduction

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35
Q

what are the main components of the nervous system?

A

brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs.

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36
Q

what are the main functions of the nervous system?

A

coordination of body activities;detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them

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37
Q

what are the main components of the integumentary system?

A

skin and its derivatives (such as hair, claws, skin glands)

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38
Q

what are the main functions of the integumentary system?

A

protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration; thermoregulation

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39
Q

what are the main components of the skeletal system?

A

skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)

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40
Q

what are the main functions of the skeletal system?

A

body support, protection of internal organs, movement

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41
Q

what are the main components of the muscular system?

A

skeletal muscles

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42
Q

what are the main functions of the muscular system?

A

locomotion and other movement

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43
Q

tissues are classified into what four main categories?

A

epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

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44
Q

epithelial tissue

A

covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body

-it contains cells that are closely joined

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45
Q

what are the shapes of epithelial cells?

A

the shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice), columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous (like floor tiles)

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46
Q

how can epithelial cells be arranged?

A

the arrangement of epithelial cells may be simple (single cell layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells), or pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length).

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47
Q

cuboidal epithelium

A

dice shaped cells specialized for secretion makes up the epithelium of kidney tubules and many glands, including the thyroid gland and salivary glands

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48
Q

stratified squamous epithelium

A

multilayered and regenerates rapidly. commonly found on surfaces subject to abrasion, such as the outer skin and the linings of the mouth, anus, and vagina

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49
Q

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

A

a single layer of cells varying in height in vertebrates epithelium or cillated cells forms a mucous membrane that lines portions of the respiratory tract. the beating cilla sweep the film of mucous along the surface

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50
Q

simple squamous epithelium

A

the single layer of platelike cells function in the exchange of materials by diffusion. lines blood vessels and the air sacs of the lungs, where diffusion of nutrients and gases is critical

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51
Q

simple columnar epithelium

A

large, brick shaped are often found where secretion or active absorption are important, the secrete digestive juices and absorbing nutrients

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52
Q

connective tissue

A

mainly binds and supports other tissues

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53
Q

what do connective tissues contain?

A

connective tissues contain sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix

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54
Q

what does the matrix of a connective tissue consist of?

A

the matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation

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55
Q

what are the three types of connective tissue fiber? (all made of protein)

A
  • collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility
  • elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their original length
  • reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
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56
Q

what cells do connective tissues have?

A

fibroblasts and macrophages

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57
Q

fibroblasts

A

secrete the protein of extracellular fibers

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58
Q

macrophages

A

they are involved in the immune system

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59
Q

in vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine to form what six major types of connective tissue?

A
  • loose connective tissue
  • fibrous connective tissue
  • adipose tissue
  • blood
  • bone
  • muscle tissue
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60
Q

loose connective tissue

A

binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place

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61
Q

cartilage

A

strong and flexible support material

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62
Q

tendons

A

attach muscles to bones

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63
Q

ligaments

A

connect bones at joints

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64
Q

adipose tissue

A

stores fat for insulation and fuel

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65
Q

blood

A

is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma

66
Q

bone

A

mineralized and forms the skeleton

67
Q

muscle tissue

A

consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals

68
Q

muscle tissue is divided in the vertebrate body into what three types?

A
  • skeletal muscle
  • smooth muscle
  • cardiac muscle
69
Q

skeletal muscle

A

also called striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement

70
Q

smooth muscle

A

is responsible for involuntary body activities

71
Q

cardiac muscle

A

is responsible for contraction of the heart

72
Q

nervous tissue

A

senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal

73
Q

what does nervous tissue contain?

A
  • neurons (nerve cells)
  • glial cells (glia)
74
Q

neurons (nerve cells)

A

transmit nerve impulses

75
Q

glial cells (glia)

A

help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons

76
Q

what does control and coordination within a body depend on?

A

control and coordination within a body depend on the endocrine system and the nervous system

77
Q

hormones

A

chemical signals transmitted by the endocrine system

78
Q

where does the endocrine system transmit hormones? and how are these hormones transimitted?

A

the endocrine system transmits hormones to receptive cells throughout the body via blood

79
Q

true or false: a hormone may affect one or more regions throughout the body

A

true

80
Q

true or false: hormones are relatively slow acting, but do not have long-lasting effects

A

false, hormones are relatively slow acting, but they can have long-lasting effects

81
Q

how are nerve impulses received?

A

nerve impulses can be received by neurons, muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells

82
Q

true or false: nerve signal transmission is very slow

A

false, it is very fast

83
Q

how is the information from the nervous system conveyed?

A

the information conveyed depends on a signal’s pathway, not the type of signal

84
Q

how does the nervous system transmit information?

A

the nervous system transmits information between specific locations

85
Q

how do animals manage their internal environment?

A

animals manage their internal environment by regulating or conforming to the external environment

86
Q

regulator

A

uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external, environmental fluctuation

87
Q

conformer

A

allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes

88
Q

true or false: animals may regulate some environmental variables while conforming to others

A

true

89
Q

homeostasis

A

helps organisms maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment

90
Q

what in humans is maintained at a constant level?

A

in humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration are each maintained at a constant level

91
Q

what moderates changes in the internal environment?

A

mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes in the internal environment

92
Q

what serves as a stimulus for a given variable?

A

for a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor and trigger a response

-the response returns the variable to the set point

93
Q

what is maintained by negative feedback?

A

the dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback

94
Q

negative feedback

A

helps to return a variable to a normal range

95
Q

how do most homeostatic control systems function?

A

most homeostatic control systems function by negative feedback, where buildup of the end product shuts the system off

96
Q

positive feedback

A

amplifies a stimulus and does not usually contribute to homeostasis in animals

97
Q

how can set points and normal ranges change?

A

set points and normal ranges can change with age or show cyclic variation

98
Q

circadian rhythm

A

governs physiologican changes that occur roughly every 24 hours in animals and plants

99
Q

acclimatization

A

a process where homeostasis can adjust to changes in external environment

100
Q

thermoregulation

A

the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range

101
Q

endothermic

A

animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms

102
Q

ectothermic animals

A

gain heat from external sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles

103
Q

how do ectotherms and endotherms differ?

A

in general, ectotherms tolerate greater variation in internal temperature, while endotherms are active at a greater range of external temperatures

104
Q

true or false: endothermy is more energetically expensive than ectothermy

A

true

105
Q

what changes the body temperature of a poikilotherm?

A

the body temperature of a poikilotherm varies with its environment

106
Q

does the body temperature of a homeotherm change?

A

the body temperature of a homeotherm is relatively constant

107
Q

true or false: The relationship between heat source and body temperature is not fixed

A

true, the relationship between heat source and body temperature is not fixed (that is, not all poikilotherms are ectotherms)

108
Q

Organisms exchange heat by what four physical processes?

A

radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction

109
Q

what does heat regulation in mammals involve?

A

the integumentary system; skin, hair, nails

110
Q

what five adaptations help animals thermoregulate?

A
  • Insulation
  • Circulatory adaptations
  • Cooling by evaporative heat loss
  • Behavioral responses
  • Adjusting metabolic heat production
111
Q

what is insulation?

A

Insulation is a major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals and birds

112
Q

what reduces heat flow between an animal and its environment?

A

Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber

113
Q

in what animals is insulation important?

A

Insulation is especially important in marine mammals such as whales and walruses

114
Q

what affects thermoregulation?

A

Regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects thermoregulation

115
Q

what can alter the amount of blood flowing between the body core and the skin?

A

Many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter the amount of blood flowing between the body core and the skin

116
Q

what happens during vasodilation?

A

In vasodilation, blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss

117
Q

what happens in vasoconstriction?

A

In vasoconstriction, blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss

118
Q

what allows countercurrent exchange to happen?

A

The arrangement of blood vessels in many marine mammals and birds allows for countercurrent exchange

119
Q

what do countercurrent heat exchangers transfer?

A

Countercurrent heat exchangers transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions and reduce heat loss

120
Q

what sea creatures use countercurrent heat exchanges?

A

Some bony fishes and sharks also use countercurrent heat exchanges

121
Q

do insects have countercurrent heat exchangers?

A

Many endothermic insects have countercurrent heat exchangers that help maintain a high temperature in the thorax

122
Q

how do animals lose heat?

A

Many types of animals lose heat through evaporation of water from their skin

123
Q

what increases the cooling effect in birds and many mammals?

A

Panting increases the cooling effect in birds and many mammals

124
Q

what helps an animal cool down?

A

Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to cool an animal down

125
Q

what two things use behavioral responses to control body temperature?

A

Both endotherms and ectotherms use behavioral responses to control body temperature

126
Q

terrestrial invertebrates have postures that cause what to happen?

A

Some terrestrial invertebrates have postures that minimize or maximize absorption of solar heat

127
Q

thermogenesis

A

the adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature

128
Q

how is thermogenesis increased?

A

Thermogenesis is increased by muscle activity such as moving or shivering

129
Q

what causes nonshivering thermogenesis?

A

Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place when hormones cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity

130
Q

true or false: Some ectotherms can also shiver to increase body temperature

A

true

131
Q

what causes ectotherms to produce “antifreeze” compounds?

A

When temperatures are subzero, some ectotherms produce “antifreeze” compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells

132
Q

why do birds and mammals vary their insulation?

A

Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes

133
Q

Thermoregulation is controlled by what region of the brain?

A

hypothalamus

134
Q

what does the hypothalamus trigger?

A

The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or heat generating mechanisms

135
Q

true or false: Fever is the result of a change to the set point for a biological thermostat

A

true

136
Q

bioenergetics

A

the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal

137
Q

what does bioenergetics determine?

A

It determines how much food an animal needs and it relates to an animal’s size, activity, and environment

138
Q

what do animals harvest?

A

Animals harvest chemical energy from food

139
Q

what do energy-containing molecules from food make?

A

Energy-containing molecules from food are usually used to make ATP, which powers cellular work

140
Q

what does biosynthesis include?

A

Biosynthesis includes body growth and repair, synthesis of storage material such as fat, and production of gametes

141
Q

what has to happen so that food molecules can be used in biosynthesis?

A

After the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food molecules can be used in biosynthesis

142
Q

metabolic rate

A

the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time

143
Q

how is metabolic rate determined?

A
  • An animal’s heat loss
  • The amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced
144
Q

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

the metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature

145
Q

Standard metabolic rate (SMR)

A

the metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature

146
Q

what do both the Basal metabolic rate and the Standard metabolic rate assume?

A

Both rates assume a nongrowing, fasting, and nonstressed animal

147
Q

true or false: Endotherms have much lower metabolic rates than ectotherms of a comparable size

A

false, Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable size

148
Q

what two factors affect metabolic rate?

A
  • Metabolic rates are affected by many factors besides whether an animal is an endotherm or ectotherm
  • size and activity
149
Q

what is the metabolic rate proportional to?

A

Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the power of three quarters (m3/4)

150
Q

what is a difference between smaller animals and larger animals?

A

Smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per gram than larger animals

151
Q

what does a higher metabolic rate of smaller animals lead to?

A

The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, and greater (relative) blood volume, compared with a larger animal

152
Q

what does activity affect in endotherms and ectoderms?

A

Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for endotherms and ectotherms

153
Q

what is the maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain?

A

In general, the maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain is inversely related to the duration of the activity

154
Q

what is the use of energy partitioned to?

A

Use of energy is partitioned to BMR (or SMR), activity, thermoregulation, growth, and reproduction

155
Q

what do different species use?

A

Different species use energy and materials in food in different ways, depending on their environment

156
Q

torpor

A

a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases

157
Q

what does torpor enable animals to do?

A

Torpor enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions

158
Q

hibernation

A

long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity

159
Q

estivation

A

summer torpor, enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water

160
Q

daily torpor

A

is exhibited by many small mammals and birds and seems adapted to feeding patterns

161
Q
A

Test #2 Biology (4 decks)

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