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BIOL1190 > CH 3: Cell Level > Flashcards

CH 3: Cell Level Flashcards

1
Q

cell - parts

A
  1. plasma membrane
    - separates cell’s internal environment from outside environment
    - selective barrier
  2. cytoplasm - made of:
    - cytosol: fluid and solutes
    - organelles: subcellular structures
  3. nucleus
    - contains nucleolus and DNA
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2
Q

plasma membrane

A
  • separates cell’s internal environment from outside environment
  • flexible but sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains cytoplasm of cell
  • responsible for bidirectional transport of molecules (oxygen, nutrients and wastes)
  • selective permeable to some molecules
  • many cell reactions take place there as many enzymes are embedded in the membrane
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3
Q

cytoplasm

A

made of:

  • cytosol: fluid and solutes
  • organelles: subcellular structures
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4
Q

nucleus

A

contains:

  • nucleolus
  • DNA
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5
Q

cell membrane - fluid part of fluid mosaic

A
  • fluid mosaic of lipids and proteins
  • phospholipid molecules form flexible layer
  • protein molecules embedded in plasma membrane
  • carbohydrates act as cell identification tags on surface of plasma membrane
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6
Q

cell membrane - mosaic portion of fluid mosaic

A
  • phospholipid bilayer

- amphipatic: polar heads associate with water and non-polar tails cluster together away from water

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7
Q

cholesterol

A
  • embedded in both layers of the membrane
  • attached to phospholipid tails
  • regulates membrane fluidity:
    • warm temperatures: restrains movement of phospholipids and constrains fluidity
    • cool temperatures: prevents phospholipids from tightly packing and promotes fluidity
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8
Q

cholesterol regulating membrane fluidity

A
  • warm temperatures: restrains movement of phospholipids and constrains fluidity
  • cool temperatures: prevents phospholipids from tightly packing and promotes fluidity
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9
Q

transmembrane proteins

A

subtype of integral proteins that span across membrane

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10
Q

plasma membrane proteins - function

A
  1. form channels
  2. receptor proteins
  3. enzymes
  4. linkers
  5. cell identity markers
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11
Q

channel proteins

A

transmembrane protein: passageway allowing specific substances to pass through membrane (ex. ion channel)

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12
Q

receptor proteins

A

transmembrane protein: bind to substance outside of cell and transmit signal inside the cell (ex. hormone receptor)

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13
Q

enzymes

A

speed up chemical reactions

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14
Q

linkers

A
  • give cell shape and structure by interacting with the cytoskeleton
  • join cells together to form tissues
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15
Q

cell identity markers

A
  • include glycoproteins and glycolipids

- allow cells to recognize other similar cells

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16
Q

carbohydrates

A

found on glycocalix (extensive sugary coat on the outer surface of the cell)

  • attach to proteins = glycoproteins
  • attach to lipids = glycolipids
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17
Q

glycocalix

A
  • glyco = sugar, calix = cup-like structure
  • extensive sugary coat on the outer surface of the cell
  • function: cell recognition and cell signaling
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18
Q

membrane permeability

A
  • selectively permeable
  • permeable to small, nonpolar, uncharged molecules
  • impermeable to ions, charged and polar molecules
  • transmembrane proteins act as channels or transporters for molecules that cannot cross lipid bilayer
  • too big molecules require vesicular transport: endocytosis, exocytosis and transcytosis
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19
Q

vesicular transport

A
  • endocytosis
  • exocytosis
  • transcytosis
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20
Q

passive transport

A
  • does not requrie en-
  • solutes move down their concentration gradient from high to low
  • may or may not require a membrane protein
  • includes: simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion
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21
Q

active transport

A
  • requires en-
  • solutes pumped against their concentration gradient from low tow high
  • requires membrane protein
  • includes: primary active transport and secondary active transport
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22
Q

diffusion

A
  • movement of solutes from area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration
  • substances move down their concentration gradient independently of other substances
  • occurs even after equilibrium has been reached due to kinetic en- of molecules
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23
Q

factors affecting diffusion

A
  1. steepness of concentration gradient
  2. temperature
  3. size or mass of diffusing substance
  4. SA
  5. diffusion distance
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24
Q

passive transport - types

A
  • simple diffusion

- facilitated diffusion

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25
Q

simple diffusion

A

type of passive transport

- small, uncherged, non-polar molecules (O2, CO2, …) cross the membrane down their concentration gradient

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26
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

type of passive transport

  • some molecules cross the membrane via selective protein pores
  • no energy required: substance moving from higher concentration to lower concentration
  • transport proteins are very specific (ex. Na+ channels, K+ channels)
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27
Q

active transport - types

A
  • primary active transport
  • secondary active transport
  • exocytosis
  • endocytosis
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28
Q

primary active transport

A

type of active transport

  • gets en- from hydrolysis of ATP
  • solutes pumped against their concentration gradient by membrane proteins
  • ex. Na+/K+ pump
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29
Q

secondary active transport

A

type of active transport

  • aka co-transport
  • gets en- from released en- of exergonic reaction (flow of another solute down its concentration gradient)
  • symportes: molecules that move two solutes in the same direction
  • antiporters: molecules that move two solutes in opposite directions
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30
Q

symporters

A
  • found in secondary active transport

- are molecules that move two solutes in the same direction

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31
Q

antiporters

A
  • found in secondary active transport

- are molecules that move two solutes in the opposite direction

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32
Q

transport of big molecules

A

active type of transport

  • exocytosis
  • endocytosis
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33
Q

exocytosis

A
  • active type of transport
  • movement of large molecules or particles out of the cell (requires en-)
  • membrane-bound vesicle fuses with the membrane and expels its contents
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34
Q

endocytosis

A
  • active type of transport
  • movement of large molecules or particles to the inside of the cell
  • membrane folds inwards, trapping material from the outside
  • can be: receptor-mediated, phagocytosis, pinocytosis (bulk-phase endocytosis) and transcytosis
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35
Q

types of endocytosis

A
  • receptor-mediated
  • phagocytosis = cell eating
  • pinocytosis (bulk-phase phagocytosis) = cell drinking
  • transcytosis
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36
Q

transcytosis

A

movement of a substance through a cell as a result of endocytosis and exocytosis on the opposite side of the cell

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37
Q

osmosis

A
  • movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
  • water diffuses across a membrane from the region of lower solute concentration to the region of higher solute concentration
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38
Q

osmolarity of cell

A
  • isotonic solution
  • hypotonic solution
  • hypertonic solution
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39
Q

isotonic solution

A

equal solute concentration to the inside of the cell

- water moves in and out of the cell

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40
Q

hypotonic solution

A

lower solute concentration than the inside of the cell

  • water moves into the cell
  • rbc: hemolysis
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41
Q

hypertonic solution

A

higher solute concentration than the inside of the cell

  • water moves out of the cell
  • rbc: crenation
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42
Q

cytosol

A
  • fluid and solutes

- in cytoplasm

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43
Q

organelles

A
  • subcellular structures

- in cytoplasm

44
Q

cytoskeleton

A
  • network of fibers that runs throughout the cell
    1. microfilaments
    2. intermediate filaments
    3. microtubules
  • functions:
    1. establishes and maintains cell shape
    2. provides mechanical strength
    3. locomotion
    4. chromosome separation during cell division
    5. intracellular transport of molecules
45
Q

cytoskeleton - functions

A
  1. establishes and maintains cell shape
  2. provides mechanical strength
  3. locomotion
  4. chromosome separation during cell division
  5. intracellular transport of molecules
46
Q

cytoskeleton - types of fibers

A
  • microfilaments
  • intermediate filaments
  • microtubules
47
Q

microfilaments

A
  • composed of double-twisted filaments of actin

- function: control cell shape and movement

48
Q

intermediate filaments

A
  • composed of several different fibrous proteins depending on cell type
  • function: reinforces cell and anchors certain organelles
49
Q

microtubules

A
  • straight hollow tubes composed of globular protein called tubulin
  • functions:
    1. give cell rigidity and shape
    2. provide anchors for organelles
    3. act as tracks for organelle movement and migration of chromosome during cell division
    4. cilia and flagella
50
Q

centrosome

A
  • is a microtubule organizing centre
  • consists of a pair of centrioles (composed of microtubules arranged in a circular pattern of 9 triplets) and pericentriolar matrix
  • function: organize spindles for chromosome migration during cell division
51
Q

cilia and flagella

A
  • locomotor appendages that protrude from some cells

- made of microtubules covered by plasma membrane

52
Q

cilia

A
  • locomotor appendages that protrude from some cells
  • made of microtubules covered by plasma membrane
  • perpendicular movement
  • many and short
53
Q

flagella

A
  • locomotor appendages that protrude from some cells
  • made of microtubules covered by plasma membrane
  • drives cell forward
  • single, long
54
Q

ribosomes

A
  • particles made of rRNA and protein
  • composed of a large and a small subunit, which are made in nucleolus, and assembled in cytoplasm
  • carry out protein synthesis
  • found free in cytosol or bound to ER (make rough ER)
55
Q

ER

A
  • two types based on presence/absence of ribosomes: rough (with) and smooth (w/o)
  • interior space is distinct from cytoplasm
56
Q

rough ER

A
  • continuous with nuclear envelope and makes membrane and proteins
  • has ribosomes: makes secretory proteins, membrane proteins and organellar proteins
57
Q

smooth ER

A
  • extends from rough ER
  • synthesizes lipids, fatty acids and steroids
  • stores glycogen and calcium in specialized cells
  • in some cells: regulate carbohydrate metabolism and breaks down toxins and drugs
58
Q

golgi complex

A
  • stacks of membranous sacs
  • receive and modify products from ER, then sends them on to the other organelles or to the cell membrane
  • function: modify, sort, package and prepare proteins for their final destination
59
Q

rough ER - function

A

has ribosomes: makes secretory proteins, membrane proteins and organellar proteins

60
Q

smooth ER - function

A
  • synthesizes lipids, fatty acids and steroids
  • stores glycogen and calcium in specialized cells
  • in some cells: regulate carbohydrate metabolism and breaks down toxins and drugs
61
Q

golgi complex - function

A

modify, sort, package and prepare proteins for their final destination

62
Q

lysosomes

A
  • sacs of digestive enzymes budded off the golgi complex
  • digest cell’s food and wastes by hydrolyzing proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
  • acidic pH
63
Q

lysosomes - function

A

digest cell’s food and wastes by hydrolizing:

  • proteins
  • fats
  • polisaccharides
  • nucleic acids
64
Q

mitochondria

A
  • sites of cellular respiration
  • involved in apoptosis
  • harvest chemical en- from food and store it in the form of ATP (en- molecule of cell)
  • double membrane: inner-membrane arranged in folds called cristae
65
Q

cellular respiration - purpose

A
  • to release en- in food molecules in a gradual and controlled manner
  • allows en- to be captured and harnessed to perform work
  • glucose + O2 —> CO2 + H2O + ATP
66
Q

cellular respiration - parts

A
  • glycolysis: breaks apart glucose
  • citric acid cycle: makes e- carriers (e- have lots of en- stored in them)
  • oxidative phosphorylation: takes en- of e- and uses it to pump protons (H+) which in turn rotate the ATP synthase to make ATP
67
Q

glycolysis

A

breaks down one glucose molecule into 2 pyruvates, storing e- (en-) in e- carriers

68
Q

citric acid cycle

A

each pyruvate breaks down into 3 CO2 molecules and e- are stored in e- carriers (NADH and FADH2)

69
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A
  • e- carriers feed e- into e- transport chain
  • series of redox reactions gradually release en- that is used to pump protons across the mitochondrial inner membrane
  • protons flow back across membrane down their concentration gradient through ATP-sythase enzyme and power phosphorylation of ADP to make ATP
70
Q

nucleus

A
  • largest and most prominent organelle
  • is cell’s genetic control centre as it directs protein synthesis (allows it to control cell activity)
  • separeated from cytoplasm by nuclear envelope
  • perforated with nuclear pores that regulate entry and exit of material
  • contains nucleus and chromatin
71
Q

nucleolus

A
  • region in nucleus where rRNA is synthesized
  • cluster of DNA and RNA
  • not membrane bound
72
Q

chromatin

A
  • found in nucleus
  • composed of DNA and associated histone proteins
  • condenses into chromosomes during cell division
73
Q

gene

A
  • hereditary units of DNA that contain info to build a specific protein
  • different gene expressions
74
Q

DNA

A

informational molecule: set of instructions for cell

75
Q

central dogma of molecular biology

A

DNA —> transcription —> mRNA —> translation —> protein

76
Q

transcription takes place in ___ and translation takes place in ___

A
  • nucleus

- ribosomes (cytoplasm or rough ER)

77
Q

genetic code

A
  • sequence of nucleotides determines sequence of aa along polypeptide chain
  • codon: 3 nucleotides that code for 1 aa
78
Q

codon

A

3 nucleotides that code for 1 aa

79
Q

transcription

A
  • genetic info encoded in DNA is copied onto a strand of mRNA using complementary base paring
  • RNA polymerase binds to promoter
  • RNA nucleotides are added complementary to one strand of DNA
  • RNA polymerase detaches at terminator sequence
80
Q

mRNA processing

A
  • transforms pre-mRNA into mature mRNA
  • add 5’ cap and 3’ poly-A-tail
  • RNA splicing: introns in pre-mRNA are cut out and exons are pasted together to form mRNA
81
Q

introns

A
  • intervening sequence (not expressed)

- cut out from pre-mRNA during mRNA processing

82
Q

exons

A
  • expressed (code for protein)

- pasted together to form mRNA in mRNA processing

83
Q

translation

A
  • after mRNA has been transcribed and sliced, it is converted into a protein
  • mRNA is read by a ribosome, which assembles the appropriate amino acids into a protein
  • each mRNA codon specifies the next aa to be added to the chain (AUG - Methionine: start codone)
  • tRNA bring aa to ribosome (anticodon on tRNA base-pairs wich complementary codon on mRNA)
  • ribosomes catalyze formation of peptide bond btw aa until they reach stop codon
84
Q

AUG

A
  • methionine

- start codon

85
Q

stages of translation

A
  • initiation
  • elongation
  • termination
86
Q

cell division - types

A
  • somatic cell division

- reproductive cell division

87
Q

somatic cell division

A
  • body cells divide
  • purpose: to increase number of body cells (for growth or replacement of damaged cells)
  • 1 cells splits and becomes 2 cells: the 2 daughter cells are identical to the parent cell
    • nuclear division = mitosis
    • cytoplasmic division = cytokinesis
88
Q

reproductive cell divison

A
  • only for production of gametes (oocytes and sperm)
  • produce daughter cell with half the genetic material of parent cell
    • parent cell: 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes - diploid —> 46 chromosomes
    • daughter cell: 23 chromosomes not paired - haploid
  • nuclear division: meiosis (2 successive nuclear divisions)
  • cytoplasmic division = cytokinesis
89
Q

somatic cell cycle

A
  • interphase: cell carries out early life processes except division (G1, S and G2 phase)
  • mitotic phase: cell division
90
Q

interphase

A
  • cell has distinct nucleus and chromosomes are not visible b/c DNA not condensed
  • S phase: DNA replicates to produce 2 copies of each chromosome
    • same number of chromosomes but duplicated (sister chromatids)
    • from 46 unduplicated chromosomes to 46 duplicated chromosomes
91
Q

S phase

A

in interphase: DNA replicates to produce 2 copies of each chromosome

  • same number of chromosomes but duplicated (sister chromatids)
  • from 46 unduplicated chromosomes to 46 duplicated chromosomes
92
Q

mitosis

A
  • occurs when nuclus of a cell divides
  • results in distribution of 2 sets of chromosomes into 2 separate nucleui (duplicated —> unduplicated)
  • 4 steps: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
93
Q

mitosis - steps

A
  • prophase
  • metaphase
  • anaphase
  • telophase
94
Q

prophase

A
  • step 1 of mitosis
  • chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes
    • pair of identical chromatids held together by centromere
  • nucleolus disappears
  • nuclear envelope breaks down
  • cell has 23 pairs of duplicated chromosomes (46 tot)
95
Q

metaphase

A
  • step 2 of mitosis

- centromeres line up at exact centre of mitotic spindle: at metaphase plate/equatorial plane

96
Q

anaphase

A
  • step 3 of mitosis
  • separation of centromeres
  • two sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of cell
97
Q

telophase

A
  • step 4 of mitosis
  • cleavage furrow forms
  • chromosomes uncoil and revert to chromatin
  • nuclear envelope reforms
98
Q

cytokinesis

A
  • division of cytoplasm and organelles

- process begins in late anaphase or early telophase with formation of cleavage furrow

99
Q

meiosis

A
  • reproductive cell division
  • produces haploid cells with 23 chromosomes
  • occurs in 2 consecutive stages: meiosis I and meiosis II
100
Q

meiosis I

A

pairs of homologous chromosomes become single chromosomes

- chromosome # reduced by half

101
Q

meiosis II

A
  • duplicated chromosomes become unduplicated chromosomes
102
Q

meiosis I - prophase I

A
  • chromosomes arranged in homologous pairs to from tetrads (2 versions of each 23 duplicated chromosomes)
  • crossing over: tetrads exchange genetic material to create genetic diversity
103
Q

crossing over

A
  • in meiosis I of prophase I

- tetrads exchange genetic material to create genetic diversity

104
Q

meiosis I - metaphase I

A
  • homologous pairs line up along metaphase plate

- homologous chromosomes are side by side

105
Q

meiosis I - anaphase I

A

members of each homologous pairs separate, with one member of each pair moving to an opposite pole of the cell

106
Q

meiosis I - telophase I + cytokinesis

A
  • similar to telophase and cytokinesis of mitosis

- result: each cell is haploid (only 23 chromosomes)

107
Q

meiosis II

A
  • steps similar to mitosis

- consists of: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II

BIOL1190 (7 decks)

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