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BIO 211 > Ch. 23 - Respiratory System > Flashcards

Ch. 23 - Respiratory System Flashcards

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1
Q

Respiration

A

gas exchange between O2 and CO2. Occurs between atmosphere and body cells and involves 4 processes (pulmonary ventilation, alveolar gas exchange, gas transport, and systemic gas exchange)

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2
Q

Respiratory system

A

provides means for gas exchange; consists of respiratory passageways in head, neck, trunk, and lungs.

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3
Q

4 processes of Respiration

A

Pulmonary ventilation: movement of gases between atmosphere and alveoli.

Alveolar gas exchange (external respiration): exchange of gases between alveoli and blood.

Gas Transport: transport of gases in blood between lungs and systemic cells.

Systemic gas exchange (internal respiration): exchange of respiratory gases between the blood and systemic cells.

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4
Q

4 processes of Respiration

A

Pulmonary ventilation: movement of gases between atmosphere and alveoli.

Alveolar gas exchange (external respiration): exchange of gases between alveoli and blood.

Gas Transport: transport of gases in blood between lungs and systemic cells.

Systemic gas exchange (internal respiration): exchange of respiratory gases between the blood and systemic cells.

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5
Q

8 steps of respiratory gas movement

A
  1. Air containing O2 is inhaled into alveoli during inspiration (pulmonary ventilation)
  2. O2 diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries (alveolar gas exchange)
  3. Blood from lungs transports o2 to systemic cells (gas transport)
  4. O2 diffuses from systemic capillaries into systemic cells (systemic gas exchange)
  5. CO2 diffuses from systemic cells into systemic capillaries. (systemic gas exchange)
  6. CO2 is transported in blood from systemic cells to lungs (gas transport)
  7. Co2 diffuses from pulmonary capillaries into alveoli (alveolar gas exchange)
  8. Air containing CO2 is exhaled from alveoli into atmosphere (pulmonary ventilation)
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6
Q

Pulmonary ventilation

A

process of moving air into and out of lungs. Amount of air moved between atmosphere and alveoli in 1 min; consists of two cyclic phases: inspiration (bringing air into lungs) and expiration (forces air out of lungs). Autonomic nuclei in brainstem regulate breathing activity. Skeletal muscles cause volume and pressure gradient changes and the air moves down its pressure gradient.

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7
Q

Quiet breathing (eupnea)

A

rhythmic breathing at rest

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8
Q

Forced breathing

A

vigorous breathing accompanies exercise

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9
Q

Muscles of quiet breathing

A

diaphragm: flattens when it contracts
External intercostals: elevate ribs
These muscles relax for expiration.

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10
Q

Muscles of forced inspiration

A

sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, pectoralis minor, and serratus posterior superior, contract for deep inspiration. internal intercostals, abdominal muscles, transversus thoracis, and serratus posterior inferior contract for hard expiration (coughing). These move the rib cage superiorly, laterally, and anteriorly. Erector spinae, located along length of vertebral column; contracts to help lift rib cage. Collectively termed accessory muscles of breathing when paired with the muscles of forced inspiration.

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11
Q

Vertical Thoracic volume change

A

result from diaphragm movement. Only small movements required for relaxed breathing.

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12
Q

lateral dimension thoracic changes

A

rib cage elevation widens and narrows. Changes due to all breathing muscles except diaphragm

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13
Q

anterior-posterior thoracic dimension changes

A

inferior part of sternum moves anteriorly in inspiration and changes due to all breathing muscles except diaphragm.

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14
Q

Boyles gas law

A

at a constant temp., pressure of a gas decreases as volume increases; inverse relationship.
P1V1 = P2V2

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15
Q

Pressure Gradient

A

exists when force per unit area is greater in one place than another. If the areas are interconnected, air will flow down pressure gradient. can be changed by altering volume of thoracic cavity. (small volume changes of quiet resp. only allow .5 L to enter)

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16
Q

Atmospheric pressure

A

total pressure that all gases exert in the environment; changes with altitude (lower pressure with high altitude). 1 atm = 760 mm Hg at sea level.

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17
Q

Alveolar volume

A

collective volume in alveoli. Includes intrapulmonary pressure (in alveoli) and intrapleural pressure (in pleural cavity).

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18
Q

Intrapulmonary pressure

A

pressure in alveoli. Is equal to atm at end of inspiration and expiration

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19
Q

Intrapleural pressure

A

Pressure in pleural cavity; fluctuates with breathing. Is lower than intrapulmonary pressure (keeps lungs inflated). About 4 mm Hg lower than intrapulmonary between breaths.

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20
Q

Quiet breathing: expiration

A
  1. Initially, intrapulmonary pressure = atmospheric pressure. Intrapleural pressure is about 6 mm Hg lower.
  2. Diaphragm and external intercostals relax decreasing thoracic volume. Pleural cavity vol. decreases, so intrapleural pressure increases. Elastic recoil pulls lungs inward, so alveolar vol. decreases and intrapulmonary pressure increases. Since intrapulmonary pressure is greater than atm, air flows out until these pressures are equal. About .5 L of air leaves the lung.
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21
Q

Quiet breathing: inspiration

A
  1. Intrapulmonary pressure and Atmospheric pressure are initially equal (760 mg Hg). Intrapleural pressure is 4 mm Hg lower.
  2. Diaphragm and external intercostals contract increasing thoracic volume. Diaphragm accounts for 2/3 of volume change and external intercostal accounts for 1/3. Lungs are pulled by pleurae, so lung vol. increases and intrapulmonary pressure decreases. Because intrapulmonary pressure is less than atm, air flows in until equal (typically .5 L)
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22
Q

Forced breathing

A

involves similar steps to quiet breathing and contraction of additional muscles.

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23
Q

Airflow

A

amount of air moving in and out of lungs with each breath. Dependent on Pressure Gradient between atm and intrapulmonary pressure and Resistance.

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24
Q

What nuclei coordinate breathing

A

Autonomic; specifically the respiratory center of the brainstem. This consists of the medullary respiratory center (containing ventral and dorsal respiratory groups) and the pontine respiratory center in the pons; also known as pneumotaxic center.

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25
Q

Brainstem neurons

A

influence respiratory muscles. VRG (ventral respiratory group) neurons synapse with lower motor neurons of skeletal muscles in spinal cord. Lower motor neuron axons project to respiratory muscles. Axons innervating diaphragm travel in phrenic nerves. Axons innervating intercostal travel in intercostal nerves.

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26
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

monitor changes in concentrations of H, PCO2 and PO2.

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27
Q

Central Chemoreceptors

A

in medulla and monitors pH of CSF. CSF pH changes are caused by changes in blood PCO2. CO2 diffuses from blood to CSF where carbonic anhydrase is and that builds carbonic acid from co2 and h20.

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28
Q

Peripheral chemoreceptors

A

are in aortic and carotid bodies. Stimulated by changes in H or respiratory gases in blood. Respond to H produced independently of CO2. Carotid chemoreceptors send signals to respiratory center via glossopharyngeal nerve and aortic chemoreceptors send signals to resp. center via vagus nerve.

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29
Q

Irritant receptors

A

receptor that influences respiration; includes sneeze and cough reflex. in air passageways and stimulated by particulate matter. Causes an exaggerated intake of breath followed by closure of larynx and contraction of abdominal muscles for explosive blast of exhaled air.

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30
Q

Baroreceptors

A

in pleurae and bronchioles that influence respiration in response to stretch. Sends signals to respiratory center when overstretched to initiate inhalation reflex (to shut off inhalation)

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31
Q

Proprioceptors

A

in muscles and joints and influence respiration based on body movement. Signal respiratory center to increase breathing depth

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32
Q

Physiology of quiet breathing

A

Inspiration begins when VRG inspiratory neurons fire spontaneously. Signals are sent from VRG to nerves exciting skeletal muscles for about 2 sec causing diaphragm and ex. intercostals to contract and air flow in. quiet expiration occurs when VRG is inhibited. Signals from inspiratory neurons are relayed to VRG expiratory neurons and expiratory neurons send inhibitory signals back so that no signals are sent to inspiratory muscles for about 3 secs.

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33
Q

Normal respiration rate

A

12-15 breaths per min.

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34
Q

Pontine respiratory center

A

facilitates smooth transitions between inspiration and expiration by sending signals to medullary resp. center. Damage to pons causes erratic breathing.

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35
Q

how do chemoreceptors alter breathing rate and depth?

A

by sending signals to DRG (dorsal resp. group) which are relayed to VRG. VRG changes rhythm and force of breathing by altering amount of time in inspiration and expiration and stimulation of muscles.

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36
Q

What causes an increase in ventilation?

A
  1. central chemoreceptors detecting an increase in H concentration of CSF
  2. Peripheral chemoreceptors detecting increase in blood H or PCO2

Increased ventilation will expel more Co2 returning conditions to normal. Decrease ventilation will occur if opposites happen.

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37
Q

How does blood PCO2 influence breathing?

A

It is the most important stimulus affecting breathing; raising it by 5 mm Hg doubles breathing rate.Co2 fluctuations influence sensitive central chemoreceptors and it combines with water in CSF to form carbonic acid. CSF lacks buffers so its pH change triggers reflexes. Blood po2 is not as sensitive (must decrease from 95 to 60 to have effect independent of pco2). When po2 drops it causes peripheral chemoreceptors to be more sensitive to blood pco2.

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38
Q

Inhalation reflex (Hering-Breuer reflex)

A

baroreceptors initiate this reflex to shut off inspiration and protect against overinflation

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39
Q

Hypothalamus

A

increases breathing rate if body is warm (works through respiratory center)

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40
Q

Limbic system

A

alters breathing rate in response to emotions (works through resp. center)

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41
Q

Frontal lobe and cerebral cortex

A

controls voluntary changes in breathing patterns. bypasses respiratory center and stimulates lower motor neurons directly.

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42
Q

Nervous control of respiratory system

A

Respiratory system includes both smooth muscles and glands. It is innervated by axons of lower motor neurons of ANS and controlled by autonomic brainstem nuclei

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43
Q

Nervous control of breathing muscles

A

innervated by lower motor neurons of somatic NS. Controlled by brainstem autonomic nuclei, cerebral cortex, and somatic nervous system. It is both a reflexive and conscious control of breathing.

44
Q

F = change of P/R

A

change of P = pressure difference b/w atmosphere and interpulmonary pressure Patm - Palv.

R= resistance
F= flow

Flow directly relates to pressure gradient and inversely relates to resistance. (if pressure gradient increases, airflow to lungs increases; if resistance increases, airflow lessens)

45
Q

Resistance

A

factors that increase difficulty moving air. Can be altered by 1. change in elasticity of chest wall and lungs, 2. change in bronchiole diameter, or 3. collapse of alveoli.

46
Q

chest wall elasticity and resistance

A

elasticity decreases with aging and disease, vertebral malformations, arthritis, or pulmonary fibrosis.

47
Q

Bronchiole diameter and resistance

A

bronchoconstriction of occlusion increases resistance. Can be caused by parasympathetic activity, histamine, cold, excess mucus, or inflammation.

bronchodilation decreases resistance. Caused by sympathetic stimulation or epinephrine

48
Q

collapsed alveoli and resistance

A

can occur if alveolar type II cells are not producing surfactant (so high surface tension of alveoli is not overcome). Important factor for premature infants when alveoli collapse with expiration. Can cause respiratory distress syndrome.

49
Q

Compliance

A

ease with which lungs and chest wall expand. Determined by surface tension and elasticity of chest and lung.

50
Q

Conditions that increase resistance to airflow

A 
asthma (bronchiole size)
pulmonary fibrosis (less compliance)

results in need for more forceful inspirations that require a high amount of energy. Can cause a 4-6 fold increase in energy needs (from 5% to 25% total energy expenditure)

51
Q

tidal volume

A

amount of air inhaled or exhaled per breath during quiet breating

52
Q

respiration rate

A

of breaths per minute

53
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

tidal vol. x respiration rate

500 mL x 12 breaths/min = 6 L/min

54
Q

anatomic dead space

A

conducting zone space where there is no exchange of respiratory gases. about 150 mL.

55
Q

alveolar ventilation

A

amount of air reaching alveoli per minute. deep breathing maximizes alveolar ventilation.
(tidal vol. - anatomic dead space) x respiration rate = alveolar ventilation
(500mL - 150mL)x12 = 4.2 L/min

56
Q

physiologic dead space

A

normal anatomic dead space + any loss of alveoli. Some disorders decrease # of alveoli participating in gas exchange (pneumonia)

57
Q

Spirometer

A

measures respiratory volume to assess respiratory health. Measures 4 volumes: tidal, inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve, residual.

58
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

A

amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled beyond the tidal volume; measure of compliance.

59
Q

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

A

amount that can be forcibly exhaled beyond tidal volume; measure of elasticity

60
Q

Residual volume

A

amount of air left in the lungs after the most forceful expiration.

61
Q

4 capacities that can be calculated from respiratory volumes

A

inspiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, vital capacity, total lung capacity.

62
Q

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

A

tidal volume + inspiratory reserve

63
Q

Functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

Expiratory reserve volume + residual volume. Volume left in the lungs after a quiet expiration.

64
Q

Vital capacity

A

tidal volume + inspiratory and expiratory volumes. Total amount of air a person can exchange through forced breathing.

65
Q

Total lung capacity (TLC)

A

sum of all volumes, including residual volume. Maximum vol. of air lungs can hold.

66
Q

Forced expiratory volume (FEV)

A

percent of vital capacity that can be expelled in a set period of time.
FEV1 = percentage expelled in one second
75-85% of vital capacity in a healthy person.

67
Q

Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV)

A

greatest amount of air that can be taken in and then expelled from the lungs in 1 minute. Breathing as quickly and as deeply as possible; can be as high as 30 L/min (compared to 6 at rest). All respiratory disorders impair this.

68
Q

Partial pressure

A

pressure exerted by each gas within a mixture of gases, measured in mm Hg (written with P followed by gas symbol i.e. PO2). Each gas moves independently down its partial pressure gradient during gas exchange.

69
Q

Partial pressure equation

A

total pressure x % of gas

is the driving force moving gas into liquid.

Nitrogen is 78.6% of gas in air
760 mm Hg x 78.6% = 597 mm Hg

70
Q

Dalton’s law

A

total pressure in a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the individual partial pressures.

71
Q

Alveolar gas exchange

A

between blood in pulmonary capillaries and alveoli.

Po2 in alveoli is 104 mm Hg and po2 of blood entering is 40. Oxygen diffuses into capillaries and levels in alveoli remain constant as fresh air continuously enters.

Pco2 in alveoli is 40 and is 45 in blood so co2 diffuses to alveoli and continues until blood levels equal alveoli levels.

72
Q

systemic gas exchange

A

between blood in systemic capillaries and systemic cells.

73
Q

Henry’s law

A

at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in liquid is dependent upon the 1. partial pressure of the gas in the air or 2. solubility coefficient of the gas in the liquid.

74
Q

Solubility coefficient

A

volume of gas that dissolves in a specified volume of liquid at a given temp. and pressure. This is a constant that depends upon interactions between molecules of the gas and liquid

75
Q

Gas solubility in water

A

carbon dioxide is about 24 times as soluble as O2

Nitrogen is about half as soluble as O2.

Gases with low solubility require larger pressure gradients to “push” gas into the liquid.

76
Q

Decompression sickness

A

occurs when diver comes up to quickly. Nitrogen is forced into the blood due to the higher pressure and dissolved nitrogen will bubble out of solution while still in blood and tissues. Treated with hyperbaric oxygen chamber that increases partial pressure gradient for oxygen so additional oxygen can dissolve into plasma.

77
Q

Thickness of respiratory membrane

A

0.5 micrometers

78
Q

surface area of respiratory membrane

A

70 square meters

79
Q

Ventilation-Perfusion coupling

A

ability of bronchioles to regulate airflow and arterioles to regulate blood flow.

Ventilation: changes by bronchodilation or bronchoconstriction. (ex: dilation in response to increased pco2 in air in bronchioles)

Perfusion: changes by pulmonary arteriole dilation or constriction (ex: dilation in response to decreased pco2 or increased po2 in blood).

80
Q

Emphysema

A

Irreversible loss of pulmonary gas exchange surface area and inflammation of air passageways distal to terminal bronchioles. Causes widespread destruction of pulmonary elastic CT and decreased # of working alveoli. Causes inability to expire effectively. Mostly caused by smoking.

81
Q

Diseases that decrease alveolar gas exchange

A

decreases # of alveoli: lung cancer
thickened respiratory membrane: congestive heart failure
changes in ventilation-perfusion couples: asthma, pulmonary embolism

82
Q

Systemic gas exchange

A

PO2 in systemic cells is 40 mm Hg and 95 in systemic capillaries. Continues until blood po2 is 40 mm Hg and systemic cell po2 stays fairly consistent b/c o2 is delivered at same rate it is used unless engaging in strenuous activity.

PCO2 is systemic cells is 45 and 40 in capillaries. Diffusion continues until blood PCO2 is 45.

83
Q

Oxygen transport

A

bloods ability to transport o2 depends on 1. solubility coefficient of oxygen (this is very low, and so very little oxygen dissolves in plasma) and 2.presence of hemoglobin (98% of o2 in blood is bound to hemoglobin)

84
Q

Oxyhemoglobin

A

HbO2 - hemoglobin with oxygen bound

85
Q

Deoxyhemoglobin

A

HHb - hemoglobin w/o bound oxygen

86
Q

Pulse Oximeter

A

noninvasive way to measure oxygen. Applied to finger or earlobe and measures hemoglobin saturation by determining ratio of HbO2 to HHb. Normal reading hemoglobin saturation is greater than 95%

87
Q

Carbon Dioxide transport

A

3 means of transport

  1. dissolved in plasma (7%)
  2. attached to amine group of globin portion of hemoglobin (23%)
  3. as bicarbonate dissolved in plasma (70%) - co2 diffuses into erythrocytes and combines with water to form bicarbonate and H ion. bicarbonate diffuses into plasma and co2 is regenerated when blood moves through pulmonary capillaries and the process is reversed.
88
Q

Hemoglobin as a transport molecule

A

o2 attaches to iron, co2 and hydrogen ions attaches to globin. Binding of one substance causes a change in shape of the hemoglobin and changes its ability of hemoglobin to bind or release the other two substances

89
Q

cooperative binding effect

A

each o2 that binds causes a change in hemoglobin making it easier for the next o2 to bind.

90
Q

Oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve

A

s-shaped, nonlinear relationship that shows large changes in saturate occur with small increases of po2. At po2 higher than 60 mm Hg only small changes in saturation occur (90% saturation) Hemoglobin saturation is about 98% at pulmonary capillaries as po2 is 104 mm Hg. Saturation can only reach 100% at pressures above 1 atm.

91
Q

Altitude sickness

A

adverse physiologic effects from decrease in alveolar po2 and low oxygen saturation. Symptoms include headache, nausea, pulmonary edema, cerebral edema.

92
Q

Oxygen reserve

A

o2 remaining bound to hemoglobin after passing through systemic circulation; provides means for additional o2 to be delivered under increased metabolic demands: blood leaving capillaries in active muscles are only 35% saturated as opposed to 75% in resting body. Normally only 20-25% of transported oxygen is released.

93
Q

Temperature influence on O2 release from hemoglobin

A

elevated temp. diminishes hemoglobins’ hold on oxygen.

94
Q

influence that H binding to hemoglobin has on oxygen release from hemoglobin

A

hydrogen ion binding causes conformational change that decreases affinity for oxygen release.

95
Q

Bohr effect

A

H ion causing decreased affinity for oxygen release.

96
Q

Presence of 2,3-BPG molecules on oxygen release from hemoglobin

A

these are molecules found in erythrocytes. When they bind to hemoglobin, they cause release of additional oxygen. Thyroid, epinephrine, growth, and testosterone hormones stimulate 2,3 BPG production.

97
Q

Effect that Co2 binding to hemoglobin has on oxygen release

A

binding causes release of more oxygen from hemoglobin

98
Q

Haldane effect

A

release of oxygen causes changing hemoglobin which increases the amount of co2 that can bind.

99
Q

Shifts in saturation curve

A

variables that decrease oxygen affinity for hemoglobin shift right and increase shift left.

100
Q

Effects of Carbon Monoxide

A

interferes with oxygen binding to hemoglobin because it has a stronger bond to iron. Risk of atherosclerosis is increased and decreased blood flow results in decreased nutrients and oxygen to cells. Can be treated with hyperbaric oxygen chambers.

101
Q

Hyperventilation

A

breathing rate or depth above body’s demand. Caused by anxiety or ascending to high altitude. Causes Po2 to rise and pco2 to fall in alveoli. Additional oxygen does not enter blood and there is a greater loss of co2 resulting in hypocapnia. Hypocapnia causes vasoconstriction and less o2 to brain. May decrease H ions and if buffers cant compensate, you get respiratory alkalosis. Symptoms include fainting, numbness, dizziness, cramps, tetany, disorientation ect.

102
Q

respiratory alkalosis

A

increased respiration elevates the blood pH beyond the normal range (7.35–7.45) with a concurrent reduction in arterial levels of carbon dioxide.

103
Q

Hypoventilation

A

breathing too slow (bradypnea) or too shallow (hypopnea). May be caused by brainstem injury, airway obstruction, pneumonia. O2 levels decrease and co2 increase in alveoli. may result in inadequate oxygen delivery and increased hydrogen ion concentration due to high blood pco2. Symptoms include lethargy, sleepiness, headache, polycythemia, cyanotic tissue, convulsions.

104
Q

hypoxemia

A

low blood po2

105
Q

hypoxia

A

low oxygen in tissues

106
Q

respiratory acidosis

A

Respiratory acidosis is a condition that occurs when the lungs can’t remove enough of the carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by the body. Excess CO2 causes the pH of blood and other bodily fluids to decrease, making them too acidic

107
Q

Breathing and exercise

A

hyperpnea and increased cardiac output will occur to meet increased tissue needs. rate remains the same but depth increases. blood po2 and pco2 remain relatively constant. Respiratory center is stimulated by proprioceptive sensory signals, motor output from cerebral cortex, or anticipation of exercise.

BIO 211 (15 decks)

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