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224 CSN > ch 23 respiratory system > Flashcards

ch 23 respiratory system Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 6 functions of the respiratory system?

A
  1. Respiration (breathing)
  2. Regulating blood pH
  3. Production of chemical mediators (angiotensin converting enzyme)
  4. Vocalization
  5. Olfaction
  6. Protection: prevents stuff from entering
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2
Q

The respiratory system is divided structurally into an ……………… and ………………. respiratory system. It is divided functionally into a ………………. zone and a ……………… zone.

A

upper and lower (at end of larynx) respiratory system. Conducting zone (warms, filters, humidifies and conducts air from nose to bronchiole), and a Respiratory Zone (within lungs where gas exchange occurs).

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3
Q

The nose is made of ……………….. and ……. . Air enters the …………….. and flows to the superior, middle, and inferior ……………. ……………, creating turbulence.

A

Hyaline cartilage and bone. Vestibule, nasal meatuses.

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4
Q

What is the purpose of the nasal mucosa?

A

it is highly vascular to warm, filter and humidify air to not kill the fragile cells in the lungs.

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5
Q

The part of the pharynx shared by the respiratory and digestive systems is lined with …………….. …………….. …………….. . This differs from the areas that don’t share with the digestive tract because ……………….. . These other areas are ………………. and ……………… and are lined with ………………. and ……………….. to produce mucus.

A

stratified squamous epithelium because extra protection is needed. Larynx and distal conducting passageways, ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium and goblet cells

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6
Q
  1. The wall of the larynx is made of …………… and ……………
  2. The ……………….. folds and ……………… (aka vocal cords) are used to ………………. the respiratory tract.
  3. What vibrates when air moves past them, producing sound? 4. Moving the ……………. cartilages changes the pitch of the sound.
A
  1. cartilage and connective tissue.
  2. Vestibular folds (aka false vocal cords) and vocal folds (true vocale cords). Block off
  3. Vocal cords.
  4. arytenoid
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7
Q

The larynx and and distal conducting passageways are lined with …………….. ……………………… ………………….. …………………. and ………………. ……. and mucous to trap dust.

A

ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells

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8
Q
  1. What has C-shaped cartilages with the trachealis muscle and elastic tissue closing the posterior aspect?
  2. How many times does it branch to reach the exchange surfaces?
A
  1. The trachea.
  2. about 25 times
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9
Q
  1. The R and L main bronchi lead to the …….. and …….. ……… .
  2. ……………… bronchi lead to the lobes of the lungs.
  3. ……………… bronchi lead to the bronchopulmonary segments. 4. The last bronchi of the conducting zone are the ………….. ……………. .
  4. Changes in the pathways occur down the ………………….. …………… .
A
  1. R and L lungs (c-shaped cartilage rings)
  2. Lobar (secondary) (cartilage plates)
  3. Segmantal (tertiary)
  4. Terminal Bronchioles (no more cartilage, just smooth muscle) 5. Tracheobronchial tree
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10
Q

What are internal respiration and external respiration and in what direction do the gasses move in each?

A

Internal: gas exchange between the blood and systemic tissues. O2 leaves blood and CO2 enters blood

External: gas exchange between the alevoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries.

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11
Q

What are the 4 steps of respiration?

A
  1. ventilation
  2. external respiration
  3. gas transport
  4. internal respiration
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12
Q

what are the 3 regions of the pharynx?

A
  1. nasopharynx 2. oropharynx 3. laryngopharynx
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13
Q

what are the 5 functions of the nasal cavity?

A
  1. passageway for air
  2. cleans the air
  3. humidifies and warms air
  4. contains olfactory epithelium
  5. helps determine voice sound
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14
Q

As we make our way down the treacheobronchial tree the ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium becomes …………….. ………………. ……………….. and the rings of cartilage become …………….. ……………….. and eventually just ……………. ……………….. at the terminal bronchioles.

A

simple cuboidal epithelium, cartilage plates, smooth muscle.

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15
Q

The respiratory zone begins when we encounter respiratory bronchioles that have scattered ……………….. At this stage, ………………. roam the respiratory surfaces collecting dust.

A

alveoli. Macrophages

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16
Q

What are the 2 types of pneumocytes that comprise alveoli and what do they do?

A

Type I: simple squamous epithelium that make diffusion possible.

Type II: simple cuboidal epithelium that secretes surfactant.

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17
Q

What is the respiratory membrane?

A

It is where O2 enters blood and CO2 exits the blood. It’s formed by the alveolar walls and capillary walls. Specifically:

  1. A thin layer of alveolar fluid
  2. a layer of alveolar epithelium
  3. alveolar basement membrane
  4. capillary basememnt membrane
  5. a layer of capillary epithelium * both alveolar and capillary epithelium are simpla squamous epithelium
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18
Q

Contraction of the diaphragm is responsible for how much increase in air drawn into the inflating lungs?

A

2/3

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19
Q
  1. What are the main muscles of inspiration and are responsible for quiet inspiration?
  2. What additional muscles are recruited for labored breathing?
  3. What are the muscles of expiration?
A
  1. diaphragm (presses down on abdominal organs) and external intercostals (draws ribs up which causes thorax to flatten).
  2. pec minor and scalenes
  3. internal intercostals, transverse thoracis, and muscles that compress the abdomen.
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20
Q

when air moves into lungs, thoracic volume ………….. and pressure …………… . This is known as …………….. ………… .

A

increases, decreases. Boyles law

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21
Q

During quiet breathing the …………….. nature of the lungs cause the air to exit …………….. . During labored breathing ……………… air enters and exits the lungs because … (explain)

A

elastic, passively. More, additional muscles are used

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22
Q

What are the 2 purposes of the pleura?

A
  1. reduce friction
  2. stick outside of lungs to thoracic wall.
23
Q

Describe Boyles law and the formula

A

In a container, gas pressure is inversely related to volume. So volume goes up, pressure goes down and vice versa. P=1/V

24
Q

What are the assigned values for barometric air pressure and intra-alveolar pressure?

A

Barometric pressure, Pb is designated as zero regardless of whether at sea level (where it is actually 760 mm Hg), or on a mountian top. Intra-alveolar pressure is always given as relative to barometric pressure. It is at 759 mm Hg upon inhalation and 761 upon exhalation, so is expressed as -1mmHg for inhalation and 1 mm Hg for exhalation.

25
Q
  1. At the end of expiration, alveolar and atmospheric pressure are ………………. .
  2. During inspiration, thoracic volume ………………, alveolar pressure ……… and air flows ……….. the lungs.
  3. At the end of inspiration, alveolar and atmospheric pressures are …………. .
  4. During expiration, thoracic volume ……………., alveolar pressure ……………, and air flows ………. the lungs.
A
  1. equal
  2. increases, decreases, into
  3. equal
  4. decreases, increases, out
26
Q
  1. What are the 2 factors that cause lung recoil?
  2. Which one is the more major factor that causes the recoil?
  3. What does the body do to avoid the alveoli collapsing?
A
  1. elastic fibers in the walls of alveoli and surface tension of the film of fluid that lines the alveoli
  2. The surface tension is the major factor that causes recoil.
  3. The Type II cells (simple cuboidal) produce surfactant (
27
Q
  1. Pleural pressure is always ………. than alveolar pressure.
  2. So what happens if something punctures the pleural cavity and equalizes the pleural cavity’s pressure with the outside atmospheric pressure?
  3. If the puncture wound acts as a one-way valve and doesn’t let any air out, what happens?
  4. Pleural pressure is about ………. mm Hg ………. than alveolar pressure
A
  1. less
  2. pneumothorax
  3. tension pneumothorax
  4. 4, less
28
Q
  1. What happens to pleural pressure when we inspire? During expiration?
  2. What happens to alveolar pressure when we inspire? During expiration?
A
  1. drops, rises
  2. drops, rises. * these two go together*
29
Q
  1. What is vascular compliance, and what is the best amount of compliance to have?
  2. What causes low compliance?
  3. What causes over-compliance?
A
  1. The ease with which the lungs/thorax wall expand. It is the opposite of elasticity (amount of recoil). A medium amount of compliance is best.
  2. fibrosis of lungs, collapse of alveoli, obstruction, or thoracic deformity.
  3. Anything that reduces the elastic recoil, like emphysema.
30
Q
  1. What is Tidal volume?
  2. What is Inspiratory reserve volume?
  3. What is Expiratory reserve volume?
  4. What is Residual volume?
  5. what are pulmonary capacities?
  6. Inspiratory capacity?
  7. functional residual capacity?
  8. Vital capacity
  9. Total lung capacity
A
  1. The normal volume of air inspired and expired with each breath.
  2. amount of air that can be forcefully inspired after a normal inspiration
  3. amount of air that can be forcefully expired with after a normal expiration
  4. the volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passageways after the most forceful expiration
  5. the sum of any two or more pulmonary volumes
  6. inspiratory reserve volume + Tidal volume
  7. expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
  8. sum of all pulmonary volumes minus the residual volume
  9. sum of all pulmonary volumes.
31
Q
  1. What do minute volume (V*) and minute alveolar ventilation (V*A) measure?
  2. What can minute volume be compared to and what is the formula for it?
  3. Why is minute volume (V*) not an accurate measure of air available for gas exchange? What is a better calculation?
  4. What are anatomical and physiological dead spaces?
  5. What is minute alveolar ventilation (V*A) and its formula?
A
  1. lung capacities
  2. same as cardiac output. It is tidal volume (VT) x how many breaths per minute (f). Formula: V*=VTxf. (V* is minute volume) 3. because of the anatomical and physiological dead space. Minute alveolar ventilation (V*A) is more accurate.
  3. anatomical dead space = air in the conducting zone. physiological dead space = air in non-functioning alveoli + anatomical dead space.
  4. it is the measure of air available gas exchange per minute. V*A= f (VT-VD)
32
Q

What is Dalton’s Law?

A

States that each gas in a mixture of gasses exerts its own pressure. The total pressure of gas is the sum of all the individual gasses in the mixture. For example, air at sea level has a pressure of 760 mm Hg and is the total of all the partial pressures that it contains.

33
Q

Why are the compositions of inspired, alveolar, and expired air different from each other?

A
  1. Air gets humidified when it enters the respiratory system, so the Partial pressure of water vapor goes up.
  2. O2 diffuses from alveoli into blood, while CO2 diffuses from blood into the alveoli.
  3. alveolar air is only partially replaced by atmospheric air with each breath. So there is a mixture of old air with new.
34
Q

What is Henry’s law?

A

The concentration of gas that will dissolve into a liquid is proportional to the Partial pressure of the gas AND its solubility. concentration of dissolved gas = pressure of gas X solubility coefficient *For example water solubility of CO2>O2>N

35
Q

What is air comprised of?

A

It is comprised of: 79% Nitrogen 21% Oxygen .04% Carbon Dioxide 0% water vapor Po2= .21 X 760 mm Hg = 160 mm Hg (oxygen has 160 mm Hg of pressure)

36
Q

What are the 4 major factors that affect the rate of gas diffusion thru the respiratory membrane?

A
  1. thickness of membrane (very thin).
  2. both O2 and CO2 diffuse across the membrane easily.
  3. the huge surface area of the membrane 70 m2
  4. The partial pressure gradient of the gas across the membrane makes O2 leave lungs and go into blood and CO2 leave blood and go into lungs
37
Q

Why is it dangerous for the respiratory membrane to thicken, and how can this happen?

A

it decreases the rate of gas diffusion. Caused by fluid accumulation in the alveoli (aka pulmonary edema). L sided heart failure, tuberculosis, and pneumonia can cause this.

38
Q
  1. What is alveolar ventilation?
  2. What is pulmonary capillary perfusion?
  3. What are the 2 ways that this relationship can be disrupted?
  4. Why is pulmonary capillary perfusion regulated?
  5. Why would pulmonary capillary perfusion to an area be reduced?
A
  1. air flow to an alveolus
  2. The blood flow to capillaries around that alveolus
  3. alveolar ventilation may exceed the blood’s ability to pick up O2 (inadequate cardiac output), or maybe not enough alveolar ventilation to oxygenate the blood (asthma)
  4. For efficiency. It will maximize oxygenation of blood in lungs
  5. if the area has poor alveolar ventiation, blood is routed to areas with better oxygenation. Makes for more efficiency.
39
Q
  1. What is blood called when not completely oxygenated?
  2. what is an anatomical shunt?
  3. what is a physiological shunt?
A
  1. shunted blood
  2. when deoxygenated blood from bronchi/bronchioles mixes with oygenated blood from pulmonary veins, OR when blood isn’t sufficiently oxygenated from pulmonary capillaries.
  3. physiological shunt is the combo of both types of anatomical shunt. 1-2% of cardiac output.
40
Q
  1. What is the Po2 in blood returning to the lungs?
  2. What is the Po2 in the air in the alveoli? 3. Blood leaving the lungs has a Po2 of?
  3. Blood arriving at the tissues has a Po2 of?
  4. Interstitial fluid has a Po2 of?
A
  1. 40mm Hg
  2. 104 mm Hg
  3. 104 mm Hg
  4. 95 mm Hg
  5. 40mm Hg
41
Q
  1. Blood returning to lungs has a Pco2 of?
  2. Air in the lungs has a Pco2 of?
  3. Blood leaving the lungs has a Pco2 of?
  4. Blood arriving at the tissues has a Pco2 of?
  5. Interstitial fluid has a Pco2 of?
A
  1. 45mm Hg
  2. 40mm Hg
  3. 40mm Hg
  4. 40mm Hg
  5. 45mm Hg
42
Q
  1. A molecule of hemoglobin is 100% saturated with how many O2 molecules attached to Fe groups?
  2. Approx ….. % of O2 is transported in the blood from the lungs to tissues. The other ….. % dissolves into the plasma.
  3. What does the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve describe?
  4. At normal alveolar PO2 hemoglobin saturation is nearly ……. %
  5. At a resting tissue, only ….% of O2 is released. Why?
  6. Hemoglobin will dump ……… O2 into tissues that have lower PO2 levels.
  7. Decreases in the PO2 in pulmonary capillaries has ………… effect on the saturation of hemoglobin. Yet decreases in the blood PO2 in the tissues will have a …….. effect on hemoglobin saturation. Why?
A
  1. 4
  2. 98.5%, 1.5%
  3. it describes the percent saturation of hemoglobin in the blood at different blood PO2 levels.
  4. 100%
  5. 25% Because the rest of the O2 is held in reserve and can be dumped if blood PO2 drops further.
  6. more
  7. Little, big. Because the presence of CO2 affects hemoglobin’s affinity for O2. Since CO2 is expired, pulmonary capillaries contain less CO2 than systemic tissue capillaries. So hemoglobin has more affinity to O2 in pulmonary capillaries than tissue capillaries. This is related to bohr effect.
43
Q
  1. What are the 4 factors that affect the saturation of hemoglobin?
  2. What is the bohr effect?
  3. What does increased/decreased PCO2 do to saturation? Why?
  4. What is the RBC enzyme that catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) from CO2?
  5. When temperature rises, hemoglobin carries ……. O2. Why?
  6. What does a shift to the right describe in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve? What about a left shift? Where do these shifts happens (lungs/tissues?)
A
  1. PO2, blood pH, PCO2, and Temperature
  2. Lower blood pH (more acidic) decreases hemoglobin’s affinity to O2 (so more O2 is released), and vice versa. Because H+ molecules bind to hemoglobin changing its shape.
  3. Creates a bohr effect because as CO2 increases, more H+ ions are made, lowering blood pH. This is a reversible reaction when CO2 levels go down.
  4. Carbonic anhydrase
  5. less O2 because warm and active tissues need hemoglobin to release more O2 to them.
  6. Right shift: pH decreases, PCO2 increases, or temp increases. More O2 released from hemoglobin. Right shift happens in tissues. Left Shift: pH increases, PCO2 decreases, or temp decreases, and hemoglobin’s affinity to O2 increases. Left shift happens in lungs.
44
Q
  1. BPG (2-3 bisphosphoglycerate) is made in the ……….. during ………….. .
  2. Increased BPG causes hemoglobin to …………… O2.
  3. A potent trigger for BPG production is ………… . What else causes increased BPG production?
  4. Why can’t banked blood be used after 6 weeks of storage?
A
  1. RBCs, glycolosis.
  2. Release
  3. Low blood O2. epinephrine, high blood pH, and high altitudes.
  4. Because BPG levels decrease to the point where not enough O2 can be released from the blood.
45
Q

What are the 3 possible transport methods of CO2?

A
  1. as HCO3 dissolved in plasma (70%)
  2. as CO2 dissolved in plasma (7%)
  3. as CO2 bound to protein part of hemoglobin (23%)
46
Q
  1. What is HCO3-?
  2. What is the enzyme that catalyzes the creation of H2CO3?
  3. What is H2CO3?
  4. Where is the cloride shift and why dos it happen?
  5. What does H2CO3 dissociate into?

6 Finish this reaction: H20 + CO2 ….

  1. To carry more CO2, The bicarbonate ions HCO3- is exchanged for a …… , which is known as the ………. shift and …….. binds to hemoglobin.
A
  1. HCO3- is Bicarbonate Ions
  2. Carbonic Anhydrase
  3. H2CO3 is carbonic acid
  4. Cloride shift is when cloride either comes into or out of RBC to keep electrical balance.
  5. bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and H+
  6. H2CO3 ….H+ + HCO3-
  7. Chloride, aka chloride shift, H+
47
Q
A
48
Q

The less O2 that hemoglobin carries, the more …… it can carry. This is known as the …………….. effect. Basically, the more active a tissue is, the ……….. O2 is unloaded and the more ……… can be carried.

A

CO2. Haldane. More, CO2.

49
Q
  1. How does lowering HCO3- concentrations inside red blood cells affect CO2 transport?
  2. What does the chloride shift accomplish?
  3. What are 3 effects of H+ binding to hemoglobin
  4. What is the Haldane effect
A
  1. It promotes CO2 transport because the more HCO3- that goes into the plasma, it allows for more production of HCO3-
  2. It trades HCO3- inside the rbc with Cl- facilitating the 70% of CO2 transport in the form of HCO3- in the plasma and maintaining elecrytical balance.
  3. allows for CO2 to bind in its place, pushes hemoglobin to release O2, and hemoglobin acts as an acid buffer by binding to H+
  4. As hemoglobin binds to O2, the more readily it releases CO2 and vice versa
50
Q

Describe the steps involved in CO2 transport:

A

From tissues to lungs:

  1. CO2 diffuses into blood. Some CO2 dissolves in plasma (7%)
  2. Inside rbc, CO2 +H20 form H2CO3 (carbonic acid), catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase.
  3. H2CO3 splits into HCO3- and H+.
  4. Chloride shift exchanges Cl- for HCO3-
  5. H+ binds hemoglobin, promoting the release of O2 (bohr effect)

From lungs to tissues, same happens in reverse.

  1. Haldane effect happens when CO2 takes the place of O2 on hemoglobin.
51
Q
  1. Name the 3 respiratory groups.
  2. What are theri main functions?
A
  1. dorsal respiratory group (2), ventral respiratory group (2), and the pontine respiratory group
  2. Dorsal: primarily responsible for contracting the diaphragm, most active in inspiration.

Ventral: active during both inspiration and expiration. Stimulate both intercostal muscle groups, and abdominal muscles. Contains pre-Botzinger complex.

Pontine: function is not known

52
Q
  1. The Medullary Respiratory Center neurons produce ……….. …………… .
  2. They stimulate …………… muscles for …. seconds and then stope for …. seconds.
  3. The respiratory center receives various inputs that can alter breath rhythm. What are 2 inputs that can alter breathing?
A
  1. Breathing Rhythm
  2. inspiratory, 2 seconds, 3 seconds
  3. Cerebral Cortex and emotions
53
Q
  1. Chemical control of ventilation regulates ……., …….., and ……. levels.
  2. Where are chemoreceptors found?
  3. What does a reduction in pH lead to?
  4. T or F: Since CO2 reduces blood pH, chemoreceptors respond to increases in blood CO2.
  5. Lowered PO2 will increase breath rate and depth when it drops below …….. %
A
  1. O2, CO2, and pH
  2. medulla, aortic arch, and carotid bodies.
  3. Increased breath rate and depth
  4. True
  5. 50%
54
Q

What is the Hering-Breuer reflex?

A

utilizes stretch receptors to prevent the over-inflation of the lungs.

224 CSN (13 decks)

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