Ch 13. Qualitative Data Analysis

Question 1

What are general strategies of qualitative data analysis (2)

Answer 1

• Analytic induction
• Grounded theory

Question 2

Basic operations in qualitative data analysis (2)

Answer 2

Coding
Narrative analysis

Question 3

A general research question is devised, some data are gathered, and a hypothesis is proposed

Answer 3

Analytic Induction

Question 4

Qualitative analysis is an iterative process where the

Answer 4

analysis starts after some data have been collected & further data are collected based on that analysis

Question 5

Because all cases must be explained, hypotheses generated may be too broad to be useful

Usually no guidelines on how many cases must be reviewed before the validity of the hypothesis is accepted

Answer 5

Difficulties with analytic induction

Question 6

“Theory that was derived from data, systematically gathered and analyzed through the research process” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 12)

Answer 6

Most widely used framework for analyzing qualitative data

Question 7

Grounded theory includes processes

Answer 7

1. Coding
2. Constant comparison (of data and concepts)
   The indicators are repeatedly compared for concepts/categories
3. Theoretical saturation
   A point in time when nothing new is being learned

Question 8

What is the first step in interpreting data and developing theory?

Answer 8

coding

Question 9

What are three types of coding?

Answer 9

1. open
2. axial
3. selective

Question 10

Open Coding

Answer 10

identifies initial concepts that will be categorized later

Question 11

Axial Coding

Answer 11

reviews data for linkages, re-organized according to connections

Question 12

Selective Data

Answer 12

selecting core categories, validating the relationships, and identifying gaps that need to be filed in

Question 13

building blocks of theory

Answer 13

concepts

Question 14

encompass two or more concepts

Answer 14

categories

Question 15

attributes of a category

Answer 15

properties

Question 16

initial hunches

Answer 16

hypothesis

Question 17

observed patterns are related to each other and a theory is developed to explain the connections in that setting

Answer 17

Substantive theory

Question 18

theory formulated at a higher level; requires data collection in different settings; applicable to a variety of settings

Answer 18

Formal theory

Question 19

Iterative Process

Answer 19

a cyclical approach where researchers repeat steps or phases of their research in order to refine, improve, or validate their findings.

Question 20

1. The researcher begins with a general research question
2. Relevant people and/or incidents are theoretically sampled
3. Relevant data are collected
4. Data are coded, which may, at the level of open coding, generate concepts (step 4a)

There is a constant movement backward and forward among the first four steps, so that early coding suggests a need for new data, which leads to theoretical sampling, and so on

5. Through constant comparison of indicators and concepts categories are generated (step 5a). It’s crucial to ensure a fit between indicators and concepts
6. Categories become saturated during the coding process
7. Relationships between categories are explored in such a way that hypotheses about connections between categories emerge (step 7a)

8/9. Further data are collected via theoretical sampling

10/11 The collection of data is likely to be governed by the theoretical saturation principle and the testing of the emerging hypotheses (step 11), which leads to specification of substantive theory (step 11a)

12. The substantive theory may eventually be explored using grounded theory processes in a different setting from the one in which it was generated
    In this way a formal theory (step 12a)—relating to more abstract categories not specifically examined in the research— can be generated

Answer 20

Steps in Qualitative Analysis

Question 21

• Provide reminders about what is meant by the terms used
• Are important in conceptual and theoretical comparison between cases
• Aid in conceptual and theoretical reflection, creation of concepts and categories

Answer 21

Memos in Grounded Theory

Question 22

Differences between concepts and categories may be vague

Observation and data gathering may not be as “theory neutral” as claimed

Practical difficulties
May not result in theory (especially formal theory)

Coding may result in fragmentation, loss of narrative flow

Answer 22

Criticisms of Grounded Theory

Question 23

1. code and transcribe asap
2. read through the data before considering any interpretation
3. read through the data again
4. do not be concerned with producing too many codes, this is normal at the beginning
5. review the codes to consider associations, redundancy, & relationships to existing concepts
6. consider general theoretical ideas regarding codes & data
7. keep coding in perspective

Answer 23

Steps and Considerations in Coding

Question 24

Problems with Coding (5)

Answer 24

1. Risk of losing the context
2. Fragmentation of data
3. Basic Coding
4. Deeper awareness of the context in the text
5. Exploring broader analytic themes (refer to slides for full description)

Question 25

CAQDAS

Answer 25

Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software

Question 26

• Eliminates many, if not most, clerical tasks associated with manual coding and retrieving of data
• Leading software: QSR NVivo, MAXQDA, other
• Will sort data once the codes are defined
• They don’t interpret the data

Answer 26

What does CAGDAS do?

Question 27

Proposes new visual ways of looking at data which stimulate its holistic perception and points to connections between ideas and concepts

Allows researcher to estimate how representative different quotes from qualitative interviews are

Improves the transparency of qualitative analysis, as researchers are more explicit about how they conduct the study and describe how they used CAQDAS

Answer 27

Advantages of using software

Question 28

• Primarily works to quantify coded text and negates the qualitative, thematic interpretation of meaning important in qualitative analysis
• Fragments textual material into very small pieces of data where the natural flow of the story is broken
• Too closely built around the grounded theory and this diminishes another key strength of qualitative research, its flexibility

Answer 28

Criticisms of using software

Question 29

Researching the stories people tell to understand their lives and the world (People are asked to tell a story, rather than respond to questions)

Answer 29

Narrative Analysis

Question 30

Narrative Analysis focuses on context/events and the interpretations people make of them. They (2)

Answer 30

1. Shift from what happened to how people make sense of it
2. Brings in perspective of life as an experience

Question 31

What are four models of narrative analysis?

Answer 31

1. Thematic: Examines what is said rather than how it is said
2. Structural: Examines the way a story is told and what is emphasized to increase persuasiveness
3. Interactional: Examines the dialogue (co-construction) between the teller and the listener
4. Performance: Examines narrative as a performance

Question 32

Over-relies on the story and gives preference to the accounts of participants as the only explanations of social phenomena

Stories may be accepted at face value by the researcher

Taking a critical stance may help the researcher to understand the motives, the social situation of the teller, and broader social conditions in which the story is told

Answer 32

Criticisms of narrative analysis