Cellular Final Flashcards
Eukaryotes or Prokaryotes? _______ have a nucleus; ________ have a nucleoid
Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes or Prokaryotes? _______ have less DNA and fewer genes.
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes or Prokaryotes? __________ have a single circular DNA molecule; _____ have multiple linear chromosomes.
Prokaryotes, Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes or Prokaryotes? ________ contain an array of complex membranous & membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes or Prokaryotes? ______ have a complex cytoskeleton.
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes or Prokaryotes? ______ have 70S and 80S ribosomes
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes or Prokaryotes? ______ have complex flagella and cilia.
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes or Prokaryotes? ______ have greater diversity of metabolism and habitat.
Prokaryotes
The oldest ____ fossils are 2.7 billion years old. The oldest _____ fossils are 1.8 billion years old.
prokaryotic, eukaryotic
Sequencing ____ places all organisms into three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya?
16s and 18s rRNAs
Sequencing of organisms shows evidence of _______ between prokaryotes, and between eukaryotes and their ____.
lateral gene transfer, symbionts
Genes involved in transcription, translation, and DNA replication are less likely to be involved in _____, so are the best subjects for determining phylogeny.
gene transfer
What is the Endosymbiosis theory?
An anaerobic, heterotrophic Archaea ancestor ingested a small aerobic Eubacteria ancestor. These endosymbionts evolved into mitochondria.
How did other organelles evolve?
by gradual evolution
Early eukaryotes then ingested cyanobacteria ancestors giving rise to ______.
chloroplasts
What are 3 factors of a virus structure?
Protein coat or capsid, Nucleic acid, Some have an envelope
________ proteins must attach to host cell for infection to occur.
Capsid or envelope
_____ are not cells.
Viruses
Viruses are all ________.
obligate intracellular parasites
Which is smaller, bacteria or viruses?
Viruses
____ contain no cytoplasm.
Viruses
A covalent bond is the _____.
sharing of electron pairs
A chemical bond formed between two ions with opposite charges. They form when one atom gives up one or more electrons to another atom.
Ionic bonds
A weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other.
Hydrogen bonds
The interactions between nonpolar molecules are called ______.
Hydrophobic interactions
Weak, short-range electrostatic attractive forces between uncharged molecules, arising from the interaction of permanent or transient electric dipole moments.
van der Waals force
Strong electrostatic attractive forces between molecules or atoms that occur after the transfer of electrons.
ionic bonds
Place in order by bond strength. Hydrogen bonds, van der Waals force, Covalent bonds, Hydrophobic interactions, Ionic bonds
Covalent bonds Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds Hydrophobic interactions van der Waals force
simple sugars differ by number of carbons in the backbone; each carbon has a hydroxyl or carbonyl group
Carbohydrates
amino acids that each have an amine and carboxyl group, but have different R-groups: polar charged, polar uncharged, nonpolar and unique.
Proteins
nucleotides that are made of a sugar, phosphate and base, they have different sugars and bases: ribose/deoxyribose, A/T/G/C/U
Nucleic acids
Glucose is a carbohydrate in its (monomer/polymer) form.
monomer
Starch is a carbohydrate in its
polymer
Amino acids are proteins in their (monomer/polymer) form.
monomer
Chemists call these monomers “nucleotides.” The five pieces are uracil, cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine.
Nucleic acids
RNA and DNA are polymers of ____.
Nucleic acids
_____ Amino Acid R-Groups form ionic bonds in tertiary and quaternary protein structure, and with other molecules
Polar charged
can form hydrogen bond in secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure, and with other molecules.
Polar non charged
_____ Amino Acid R-Groups form van der Waals and hydrophobic interactions in tertiary protein structure.
Non polar
_____ Amino Acid R-Groups in which glycine adds flexibility to the polypeptide, proline produces kinks and hinges in the secondary structure, cysteine produces disulfide bridges in tertiary and quaternary structure.
Unique amino acids
The smallest amino acid is ____. It is made up of -H.
Glycine
____ is a non polar ring of amino acids.
Proline
____ is an amino acid made up of -S-H
Cysteine
Tertiary protein structure: Most proteins are composed of _____.
two or more distinct domains
Tertiary protein structure: Many proteins have arisen by the fusion of _____.
gene parts from different ancestral proteins
Tertiary protein structure: Shuffling of domains creates proteins with ______.
unique combinations of activities
Quaternary protein structure – most proteins are composed of _______.
more than one polypeptide chain
proteins in different organisms that come from a common ancestral gene, natural selection has produced different variants of the protein.
Homologous proteins
The proteins of halophiles have more acidic amino acids directed outside, while thermophiles have more acidic and basic amino acids directed inside. This is an example of a ______.
Homologous protein
different versions of a protein found in the same organism adapted to function in different tissues or at different developmental stages. These two proteins arose from a single ancestral gene
Isoforms
proteins that have arisen from a single ancestral gene. Over time the gene undergoes a series of duplications. The duplicate genes evolve independently. These proteins may evolve to perform different functions.
Protein families
What do these all have in common? Protein catalysts, Required is small amounts, Have no affects on the thermodynamics of a reaction, Lower the energy of activation required, High level of catalytic activity, High level of specificity
They are properties of enzymes.
analogue of the substrates for transpeptidases, irreversible inhibiting by going into the active sites and forming covalent bonds.
Penicillin
destroys penicillins
Penicillinase
Initially no disease causing bacteria contained ______, but picked them up from other bacteria by conjugation, transduction and transformation.
penicillinase
penicillinase resistant penicillin
Methicillin
How have other bacteria developed resistance to penicillins?
by cell wall modification, membrane pumps, and reduce affinity of the transpeptidase for the antibiotics.
binds to the peptide substrate causing the transpeptidases to end the polymer incorrectly .
Vancomycin
____ strains have aquired several enzymes from Enterococcus faecium to become resistant to antibiotics.
Staphylococcus aureus
the enzyme pathway that breaks down glucose to form ATP, NADH, and pyruvate.
Glycolysis
Which steps of glycolysis add phosphates from two ATPs to the glucose molecule?
steps 1-3
Which steps of glycolysis produce two glyceraldehyde phosphate molecules per glucose?
steps 4 and 5
Which steps of glycolysis produce four ATPs, two NADHs, and two pyruvates per glucose?
steps 6-10
Products and Energy Obtained when Cells Oxidize Glucose: Anaerobic oxidation: ____ produces pyruvate and a small amount of ATP, while ____ keeps it going and produces products like ethyl alcohol and lactic acid.
glycolysis, fermentation
Products and Energy Obtained when Cells Oxidize Glucose: Aerobic oxidation produces ___ and ___ and _____.
CO2 and H2O and large amounts of ATP
Reactions in Glycolysis: Steps 1 and 3 are coupled to ____.
ATP hydrolysis
Reactions in Glycolysis: Steps 7 and 10 involve _____.
substrate phosphorylation
Reactions in Glycolysis: Steps 6 depends on _____.
fermentation or aerobic respiration.
amphipathic, embedded in the bilayer, functions include surface receptors, channels and transporters
Integral membrane proteins
associated with the membrane by weak electrostatic bond, usually on the cytoplasmic side; some remain on the surface, some come and go from the surface, and some penetrate the bilayer
Peripheral membrane proteins
covalently bound usually to the outside surface, function as receptors, enzymes, and cell-adhesion protein
Lipid anchored membrane proteins
What is Band 3 in integral membrane proteins?
a channel that allows movement of Cl- and HCO3- in and out of the cell
What is Glucophorin A in integral membrane protein? What does it have?
the protozoan that causes malaria attaches to this protein. It has oligosaccharides outside that make RBCs repel each other.
What is spectrin in peripheral proteins?
fibrillar membrane skeleton that determines the biconcave disk shape
What does ankyrin do in peripheral proteins?
links spectrin covalently to the inside surface of the plasma membrane
_____ is a member of the spectrin family of proteins that is found in the membranes of muscle cells.
Dystrophin
Mutations in dystrophin are the cause of ______.
muscular dystrophy
Cystic fibrosis an ___ disease.
inherited
What is cystic fibrosis caused by?
a defective CFTR protein which controls the movement of ions across mucus membranes.
_____ leads to decreased fluid bathing the epithelial cells of the respiratory lining caused by abnormal flux of Cl-, HCO3-, and Na+. This causes increase mucus viscosity and impairs cilia.
CFTR deficiency
______ binds to the extra cellular end of the CFTR protein, which may lead to its ingestion and destruction. This bacterium is a leading cause of death of cystic fibrosis patients.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
How might the heterozygous CFTR condition may confer an advantage?
From the effects of cholera and From typhoid fever
What does cholera cause that is an advantage of the heterozygous CFTR condition?
thicker mucus in the intestine
What does typhoid fever cause that is an advantage of the heterozygous CFTR condition?
the salmonella bacteria attaches to the CFTR protein to enter
The bacterial KcsA K + Channel and the eukaryotic voltage-regulated K + channel are _______.
virtually identical
When a ____ moves into the KcsA K + channel, the K+ at the opposite end is ejected into the cell. ___ opens the channel by causing a conformational change in the M2 helices which hinge open at the cytoplasmic side.
third K+, Low pH
Evidence for the evolution of mitochondria from ancient aerobic bacterium: Inner membrane contains ______ such as devoid of cholesterol, rich in the lipid cardiolipin.
bacterial characteristics
Evidence for the evolution of mitochondria from ancient aerobic bacterium: Outer membrane contains characteristics of ____, in that they have porins.
Gram–bacteria outer membranes
Evidence for the evolution of mitochondria from ancient aerobic bacterium: Mitochondrial matrix contains ______ and _____.
70S ribosomes, circular DNA
Evidence for the evolution of mitochondria from ancient aerobic bacterium: Mitochondria can ______.
split in two and fuse
Evidence for the evolution of mitochondria from ancient aerobic bacterium: _____ of mitochondrial genes are similar to eubacteria.
Nucleotide sequences
Evidence for the evolution of mitochondria from ancient aerobic bacterium: Mitochondrial genome has (few/many) genes.
few
The outer membrane of mitochondria have ___, while the inner membrane has ___.
porins, cristae
Where does ATP synthase and electron transport take place?
The cristae of mitochondria.
Where can a high concentration of protons be found in mitochondria?
The intermembrane space
The matrix of mitochondria contains what? It is the sight of the ____.
circular DNA and ribosomes; TCA cycle/Krebs cycle/citric acid cycle
Where does glycolysis occur?
the cytoplasm
What provides most of the electrons for the ETC?
The TCA Cycle
What happens in step one of the TCA cycle?
acetyl coA + oxaloacetate produce citrate
TCA Cycle: Other than succinate dehydrogenase all its enzymes are _____.
soluble in the matrix
What waste is produced in the TCA cycle?
CO2
In the ETC, _____ transfers a pair of electrons from NADH to ubiquinone while pumping four protons.
Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase)
In the ETC, _____ feeds electrons from succinate to FAD and then to ubiquinone.
Complex II
In the ETC, Ubiquinone transfers electrons to _____.
complex III
In the ETC, _____ transfers electrons from ubiquinol to cytochrome C, while pumping four protons.
Complex III
In the ETC, _____ transfers electrons from cytochrome C to Oxygen while pumping two protons.
Complex IV
The Spherical F1 head of ATP synthase, is made of _______.
alternating α and β peptides with the γ peptide running through the middle
The Fo portion of ATP synthase is made of _______.
three polypeptides imbedded the membrane
Beta subunits’ affinity changes with what?
proton movement
Three affinity states occur in the binding change mechanism. What are those three?
Loose binding of ADP/Pi, Tight bonding of ADP/Pi and, Very loose binding of ATP
During ATP synthesis, ____ molecules of ATP are produced with one 360° turn.
3
In proton driven ATP synthesis, a proton from the intermembrane space enters ___________.
a half-channel within an a subunit.
Proton Driven ATP Synthesis: The proton binds to an acidic residue on a c subunit causing a conformational change that moves the ring ___.
30 degrees
Proton Driven ATP Synthesis: The proton is carried full circle and release into the ___ by _____________.
matrix, a second half channel
The outer envelope of ____ contains several kinds of porins, while ____ only have one.
chloroplast, mitochondria
The inner envelope membrane of chloroplast is highly ________.
impermeable
The thylakoid membrane of chloroplast is flattened into sacs and the space inside is called the ___.
lumen
The thylakoid membrane of chloroplast contains the ____, ____, and _____.
photosystems, ETC, and ATP synthase
______ contain a single outer membrane and the inner membrane has cristae joined to it at the organelle boundary.
Mitochondria
The stroma of chloroplast contains what?
the Calvin cycle, circular ds DNA, and ribosome
The stroma of chloroplast contains what?
a high concentration of protons
What are chlorophylls?
the primary photosynthetic pigments
What are chlorophylls made of?
porphyrin ring + phytol tail
Chlorophylls absorb _____ light, while carotenoids absorb _____ light.
blue and red, blue and green
What are carotenoids?
secondary light collectors that draw excess energy from chlorophyll preventing production of singlet oxygen
How are carotenoids made up?
linear system of double bonds
