Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Pathology and Immunology > Cellular adaptations of growth and differentiation (G) > Flashcards

Cellular adaptations of growth and differentiation (G) Flashcards

1
Q

What are adaptation of cell growth and differentiation?

A

Changes in cell size, number, appearance or function in response to environmental conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

5 main types of cellular adaptations

A

Hyperplasia
Hypertrophy
Atropy
Metaplasia
Dysplasia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Which (4) types of cellular adaptations are reversible?

A

Hyperplasia
Hypertrophy
Atrophy
Metaplasia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Which type of cellular adaptations are mechanisms through which cells, tissue and organs adapt by increasing their size?

A

Hyperplasia
Hyerptrophy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What is hyperplasia?

A

Increase in number of cells of an organ or tissue
Results in increase in the volume of tissue

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is hypertrophy?

A

Increase in volume of cells in an organ and thus increase in size of an organ

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What do we need to know to be able to predict which mechanism can be used to increase size of organ?

A

Regeneration capacity of the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

3 types of cells

A

Labile
Stable cells
Permanent cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Which type of cell is hyperplasia typical of?

A

Labile

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Which type of cell do both hyperplasia and hypertrophy?

A

Stable (liver)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Which type of cell is hypertrophy typical of?

A

Permanent cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

2 types of hyperplasia

A

Physiological
Pathological

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

2 types of physiological hyperplasia

A

Hormonal hyperplasia
Compensatory hyperplasia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

2 examples of hormonal hyperplasia

A

Proliferation of granular epithelium of the breast during puberty and pregnancy
Uterus during pregnancy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

3 examples of compensatory hyperplasia

A

Liver regeneration
Response to hypoxia and proliferation of medullary red blood cell precursors
Intestinal villi

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What cytokine is produced during hypoxia?

A

Erythropoietin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Why is it not correct to call it regeneration (Of ex. liver)?

A

As it does not maintain original morphology

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What of the liver can regenerate?

A

Size/volume

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Are all cytokines growth factors?

A

Yes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Are all growth factors cytokines?

A

NO

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What kind of hormones are growth factors?

A

Protein hormones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What kind of hormones are not growth factors?

A

Amine and steroid hormones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is liver regeneration induced by?

A

Integrated action of growth factors and cytokines

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

3 phases of liver regeneration

A

Trigger phase
Growth phase
Termination phase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What happens during the trigger phase of liver regeneration?

A

Kupffer cells produce cytokines (ex. IL-6) which act on hepatocytes and then make competent for the action of growth factors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What does the cytokines produced by kupffer cells during liver regeneration act on?

A

Hepatocytes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What happens during the growth phase of liver regneration?

A

Growth factors (ex HGF) act on competent hepatocytes and induce their proliferation initiation of the cell cycle which takes a few hours, it is preceded by induction of transcriptional factors (ex. AP-1, c-Myc, P53) followed by cyclin synthesis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What does growth factors act on during the growth phase of liver regeneration?

A

Competent hepatocytes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What happens during the termination phase of liver regneration?

A

Release of inhibitory signals (ex TGFbeta and activin) stops cell proliferation when the number of cells or the volume reaches the original size

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

When does the proliferation stop in liver regneration?

A

When inhibitory signals are released when the liver reaches the original size of number of cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What are the 3 cytokines of liver regneration?

A

Tumours necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha)
IL-6
IL-4

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Which are the 2 growth factors of liver regneration?

A

TGFalpha
Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What do the cytokines and growth factors of liver regneration do?

A

Induce cell proliferation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What does TGFalpha bind to?

A

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

What does HGF bind to?

A

Met receptor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Different name for HGF

A

Scatter factor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What does the cytokines do in liver regneration?

A

Priming of the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What does growth factors do in liver regneration?

A

Progression to cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What are the 2 types of growth factors?

A

Growth factors of proliferative competence
Growth factors of progression

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What are the transcription factors involved in liver regeneration?

A

C-myc
AP-1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Is it always the same transcription factors that are involved in liver regeneration?

A

Yes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What is hyperplasia in the intestinal villi?

A

When there is an increase in the mucosal surface and in the height of the villus die to increased functional demand (ex. pregnancy and lactation or diabetes)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

What is pathological hyperplasia?

A

When there is an excessive hormonal stimulation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

What is endometrial hyperplasia?

A

When there is an imbalance between oestrogen and progesterone
Hyperplasia of the prostate is due to testosterone or androgenic stimulus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

What are stem cells and the proliferative cells in contact with in hyperplasia of the epidermis?

A

Basal lamina

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

What separates the epidermis from the dermis?

A

Stem cells and proliferative cells being in contact with the basal lamina

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

What are keatinocytes?

A

Stratum corneum cells that have lost the nucleus and are completely differentiated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

How long does passage from the basal layer to the stratum corneum take?

A

2-4 weeks

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

What can be a result of repeated mechanical stimulation?

A

Hyperplasia and thickening of stratum corneum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Which is the most important layer of skin and why?

A

Stratum basale, because cells that are able to divide are there

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

What is psoriasis?

A

Chronic inflamation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

How many percent of the population does psoriasis affect?

A

1-2%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

What kind of disease is psoriasis?

A

Autoimmune

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

What makes psoriasis an autoimmune disease?

A

Lymphocytes are activated by self molecules in basal lamina
Doesn’t recognise self proteins
Is meditated by T cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

What factor can psoriasis be related to?

56
Q

What can be found infiltrated in inflamed skin?

A

Leukocytes

57
Q

How many times is activity of the basal layer increased by in psoriasis?

58
Q

How long does the transition take in psoriasis?

A

4 days (the normal is 2-4 weeks)

59
Q

Is the differentiation process complete in psoriasis?

60
Q

How are the basal cells in the epidermis arranged in psoriasis?

A

Over several layers

61
Q

What abnormal place can cells in mitosis be found in psoriasis?

A

Above the basal layer

62
Q

Where can inflammation be found in psoriasis?

A

In the dermis

63
Q

What is parakeratosis?

A

Defect cell proliferation where nuclei is located in the scales of stratum corneum

64
Q

What happens when T lymphocytes enter in contact with the basal membrane in psoriasis?

A

They become activated and synthesise cytokines that affect proliferation and differentiation

65
Q

Can hypertrophy be both physiological and pathological?

66
Q

What 2 things is hypertrophy caused by?

A

Increased functional demand
Hormonal stimulation

67
Q

2 examples of increased functional demand causing hypertrophy

A

Intense muscle work in skeletal muscle
Chronic hemodynamic overload int he heart (left ventricle)

68
Q

2 examples of hormonal stimulation causing hypertrophy

A

Pregnant uterus
Breast during lactation

69
Q

What is the increased volume in hypertrophy caused by?

A

Synthesis of a greater quantity of structual components (in particular proteins)

70
Q

What is the increased volume in hypertrophy not caused by?

A

Swelling (influx of water)

71
Q

Where does chronic hemodynamic overload happen?

A

Left ventricle

72
Q

When does chronic hemodynamic overload happen?

A

During hypertension

73
Q

What is chronic hemodynamic overload a response to?

A

Increased workload of the heart fibers

74
Q

What increases during chronic hemodynamic overload?

A

Size of cells (not number)

75
Q

What does chronic hemodynamic overload result in?

A

Thickened wall of the left ventricle

76
Q

What is the increase in cell volume regulated by in cardiac hypertrophy?

A

Mechanical sensors
Vasoactive receptors (ex. alphaadrenergic hormones)
Growth factors (ex. IGF-1)

77
Q

What are receptors at the cytoplasmic level used to induce the activation of in cardiac hypertrophy?

A

Transduction pathways of PI3K and mTok and receptors associated with G proteins

78
Q

What does the activation of transduction pathways in cardiac hypertrophy result in the activation of?

A

GATA4 transcription factor, NFAT, MEF2 and expression of genes coding for muscle proteins

79
Q

What does the activation of transduction pathways in cardiac hypertrophy result in the increase of?

A

Increased synthesis of contractile proteins with increased number of my filaments and increased capacity of the muscle

80
Q

What is hypertrophy associated with the expression of?

A

Embryonic/fetal contractile proteins (ex beta isoform of the heavy myosin chain)

81
Q

What kind of contraction does embryonic/fetal contractile proteins present?

A

Slower contraction allowing the organ to save energy

82
Q

What does ANF stand for?

A

Aerial natviuretic factor

83
Q

What does ANF induce?

A

The kidneys to release more water which reduces the volume of blood and the blood pressure valves

84
Q

What is c-Myc?

A

Transcriptional factor

85
Q

What does c-Myc bid to?

A

Promoter or enhances region of genes that codifies for proteins involved in transition G0 or G1 to S

86
Q

What is c-Myc able to do in a cell?

A

Induce proliferation

87
Q

Aside from proliferation, what is c-Myc important in?

A

Differentiation
Survival
Apoptosis
Metabolism

88
Q

What kind of gene is p-53?

A

Oncosupressor gene

89
Q

Does p-53 induce cell proliferation?

90
Q

What does p-53 induce?

A

A block of cell proliferation
The synthesis of molecules that inhibit cyclin dependant kinases (ex. p-21)

91
Q

When does hypotrophy of the intestinal villi take place?

A

When there is prolonged fasting

92
Q

What can atrophy be a cause of?

93
Q

Different name for atrophy?

A

Hypotrophy

94
Q

What is atrophy?

A

The reduction of size of an organ or tissue by reducing number or size of cells (loss of cell material)

95
Q

What is atrophy caused by?

A

Decrease in protein synthesis and increase in protein degradation

96
Q

When does physiological atrophy occur?

A

During embryonic and fetal development

97
Q

7 causes of pathological atrophy

A

Reduction of workload
Inadequate nutrition
Loss of endocrine stimulation
Denervation
Ageing
Compression
Reduction of blood flow

98
Q

What does ageing cause the atrophy of?

A

The frontal lobe

99
Q

Clinical syndrome of pathological atrophy caused by inadequate nutrition

100
Q

Is metaplasia reversible?

101
Q

What is metaplasia?

A

Reversible alteration where a differentiated tissue of a certain type is replaced by on of a different type

102
Q

What is metaplasia an adaptive response to?

A

Stress

Cell type which is sensitive to the adverse condition is replaced by a more resistant type of same histogenetic origin

103
Q

In adults what kind of origin does the tissue which experiences metaplasia have?

A

Only:
Epithelial
Mesenchymal

104
Q

3 different events of metaplasia

A

Cell A changes directly in cell B
Cell A is eliminated and its progenitors produce cell B
New cell type is the result of reprogramming of undifferentiated stem cells or mesenchymal cells

105
Q

Is metaplasia a normal physiological process?

106
Q

What kind of lesion is metaplasia considered to be?

A

Preneoplastic lesion

107
Q

What can be the first step in cancer

A

Metaplasia

108
Q

What happens if the stimulus that predisposes to metaplasia persists?

A

It can induce neoplastic transformation in the mesa tic epithelium

109
Q

In epithelial metaplasia what is replaced by multilayered flat epithelium?

A

Cylindrical cell epithelia or transitional epithelia

110
Q

What can epithelial metaplasia be a result of?

A

Smoking (both in trachea, bronchi and oral cavity)
Shortage of vitamin (especially vitamin A)
Calcus in gallbladder

111
Q

Why can a shortage in vitamin A cause epithelial metaplasia?

A

It is important in the maintenance of epithelial diffeentiation

112
Q

What is mesenchymal metaplasia?

A

Formation of cartilage, bone and adipose tissue in tissues not containing these elements
(replacing non-mesenchymal cells with mesenchymal cells)

113
Q

What can bone metaplasia develop in muscle as a result of?

A

Trauma (traumatic ossifying myositis)

114
Q

As a part of what sequence can bone metaplasia take place in ateriosclerotic arteries?

A

Clacification -> ossification

115
Q

Where is metaplastic bone sometimes formed in paraplegic patients and why?

A

Around the joints
Unknown reason

116
Q

What kind of scars is bone metaplasia especially observed in?

A

Those resulting from abdominal operations

117
Q

What is dysplasia?

A

Disordered growth
Alteration of cell proliferation and differentiation

118
Q

Where is dysplasia often observed ?

A

Scaly epithelia as a result of continuous insult

119
Q

What makes dysplasia different from the other conditions?

A

It is irreversible

120
Q

Is dysplasia reversible?

121
Q

What can dysplasia represent the initial stages of?

122
Q

What is dysplasia characterised by?

A

Loss of uniformity of individual cells
Loss of architectural orientation of cells
Remarkable polymorphism
Hyperchromatic nuclei
Mitosis is more frequent and localised at the superficial level
Differenting alterations

123
Q

Does in situ carcinomas invade the connective tissue?

124
Q

Where are in situ carcinomas localised?

A

Epithelium and basal membrane (is not destruct)

125
Q

What does HPV stand for?

A

Human papilloma virus

126
Q

What is HPV?

A

Dysplasia in the uterine cervix

127
Q

What is the most important factor effecting the appearance of the uterus?

128
Q

What are dysplasia and (more so) anaplasia characterised by?

A

Numerus morphologival and functional changes

129
Q

What is pleiomorphism?

A

The presence of cells different in size and shape, large and hyper chromatic nuclei: nuclei contain a characteristic quantity of DNA higher than normal

130
Q

What is frequent or abnormal mitosis a sign of?

A

Malignancy (abnormal mitosis is always a sign of this)

131
Q

What is the presence of giant cells a sign of?

A

Malignancy

132
Q

How is cell orientation in a tissue altered?

A

Anapaestic cells lose polarity, epithelial cells are polarised and thus cell orientation in the tissue is altered

133
Q

What is controlled proliferative variations?

A

Control of cell multiplication is active and are reversibel processes

134
Q

Is tumor growth reversible?

135
Q

What is tumor growth?

A

Process that escape the control of growth

Pathology and Immunology (10 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions