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Cells and organelles Flashcards

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1
Q

What surrounds the nucleus?

A

a double membrane called the nuclear envelope

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2
Q

What does the nuclear envelope do?

A

separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. It also has several tiny pores where substances pass between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

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3
Q

What transparent gelatinous fluid does the nucleus contain?

A

nucleoplasm

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4
Q

What are chromatin?

A

minute tangled threads, coiled around themselves- they make up chromosomes

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5
Q

Are mitochondria visible with a light microscope?

A

Yes, but only just

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6
Q

What is the nucleolus?

A

a dense, dark spherical structure within the nucleus that makes rRNA and ribosomes

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7
Q

What happens to chromatin during cell division?

A

chromatin gets changed into rod-like structures called chromosomes

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8
Q

In what phase of cell division do chromosomes appear?

A

the metaphase

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9
Q

what is chromatid made up of?

A

nucleic acid DNA coiled around molecules of proteins, called histone.

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10
Q

What does the DNA do?

A

DNA carries the genetic information that controls the shape and structure of the cell and organizes the vital activities of the living organism’s cells.

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11
Q

What is the function of the cytoplasm?

A

It contains microtubules that help the cell to maintain its shape and form as well as various different organelles

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12
Q

What is the structure of the cytoplasm?

A

-a fluid-like substance present between the cell membrane and nucleus.

  • It is mainly composed of water as well as some organic and inorganic substances.

-It contains a network of threads and microtubules.

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13
Q

what are non-membranous organelles?

A

organelles that are not surrounded by a membrane

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14
Q

What are some examples of non-membranous organelles?

A

ribosomes and centrosome

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15
Q

What are membranous organelles?

A

organelles that are surrounded by a membrane

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16
Q

What are some examples of membranous organelles?

A

endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, vacuoles, and plastids.

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17
Q

What are the structure of ribosomes?

A

-round-shaped organelles.
-no outer membrane
-consists of 2 sub-units
-Some are found in the cytoplasm, some are bound to the RER
-80s or 70s

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18
Q

What are most ribosomes attached to?

A

the outer surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum

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19
Q

What are only some proteins present?

A

in the cytoplasm

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20
Q

What is the structure of microtubules?

A

-Microtubules are polymers of the protein tubulin.
- They are cylindrical tubes that are 20-25nm in diameter making them the largest of cytoskeletal fibres.

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21
Q

What 4 things do microtubules do?

A
  • They’re involved in the movement of organelles
  • They form centrioles
  • They form spindle fibres
  • They help to determine the shape of cells
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22
Q

What are centrioles made of?

A

Microtubules

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23
Q

What is a pair of centrioles called?

A

Centrosome

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24
Q

where are the centrosome located?

A

near the nucleus in a region of the cytoplasm

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25
Q

Which organisms are centrosomes found in?

A

in animal and fungi cells- they are not present in plants and some fungi cells

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26
Q

What is each centriole made up of?

A

nine groups of microtubules, ordered in triples in a spherical shape.

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27
Q

What does the centrosome do?

A

Involved in the assembly of the spindle fibres during mitosis
- The centrosome also plays an important role in forming the flagella and cilia.

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28
Q

What is the structure of cillia?

A
  • Hair-like organelles that extend from the surface of certain cells
    -Made of 9 pairs of microtubules, plus 2 in the centre.
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29
Q

What does the cillia do?

A

-Wafts dust particles along the trachea and pushes them out of the lungs
- Wafts egg cells towards the uterus in the fallopian tubes
-Senses the chemicals around the cell e.g. in the sensory cells lining the nose

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30
Q

What is the structure of the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

It has flattened membrane sacs called cisternae

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31
Q

What is the structure of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

-It has flattened membrane sacs called cisternae
-Has no ribosomes

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32
Q

What is the structure of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

-It has flattened membrane sacs called cisternae
-Has ribosomes

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33
Q

What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

-It makes an stores lipids and carbohydrates which pass through the golgi apparatus to be modified and then transported to their final destinations

-It also modifies the nature of some toxic chemicals in the cell to reduce their harmful effects

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34
Q
A
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35
Q

what are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum?

A

the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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36
Q

How can you tell the difference between the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is characterized by the presence of a large number of ribosomes on its surfaces; whereas the smooth endoplasmic reticulum doesn’t contain ribosomes.

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37
Q

What is the structure of the Golgi apparatus?

A

It has a series of flattened membrane sacs.

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38
Q

What is the number of Golgi apparatus dependant on?

A

the cell’s secretion activity

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39
Q

What do the Golgi apparatus do?

A
  • Receive proteins from the cell and modifies them e.g. by adding lipids or carbohydrates
  • Packages modified proteins into vesicles for transportation
  • Secretes some modified proteins from the surface of the cell
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40
Q

Who are the golgi apparatus named after?

A

Italian anatomist and pathologist Camillo Golgi, who described them for the first time in 1898.

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41
Q

.

A

.

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42
Q

What is the structure of lysosomes?

A
  • small spherical sacs
  • Surrounded by a single membrane
  • Internal fluid is acidic to match optimum ph
  • Contain digestive enzymes
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43
Q

What do the lysosomes do?

A
  • They contains powerful digestive enzymes such as protease, which digest larger molecules into smaller ones
  • They take part in phagocytosis
  • Destroy damaged/unfunctional cell organelles
  • Transfer their enzymes outside of the cell by exocytosis to destroy material
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44
Q

What happens to the remains of dead cells that lysosomes have digested?

A

They’re re-used to make other organelles

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45
Q
A
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46
Q

Why isn’t the cell affected by the lysosome enzymes when the lysosomes are digesting and destroying pathogens?

A

because these enzymes are surrounded by a membrane, isolating them from the cell’s components.

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47
Q

What is the structure of mitochondria?

A

Mitochondria are sac-like membranous organelles. Their walls consist of two membranes. A group of folds, known as cristae, extends from the inner membrane into its matrix figure 18. Mitochondria also include mitochondrial DNA and mitochondrial ribosomes

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48
Q

What do mitochondria do?

A

they’re the site of aerobic respiration and ATP production

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49
Q

What are vacuoles ?

A

membranous sacs containing cell sap

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50
Q

What is the membrane of a vacuole called?

A

The tonoplast

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51
Q

Is the vacuole a temporary or permanent structure in animal cells?

A

Temporary

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52
Q

Is the vacuole a temporary or permanent structure in animal cells?

A

Permanent

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53
Q

What do the vacuoles do in plants ?

A

-They help remove waste material

-they allow the plant to be turgid and so support the plant

-they’re a temporary store of sugars and amino acids

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54
Q

The vacuoles are small and large in number in animal cells, how are they like in plant cells?

A

collected in one big vacuole (or more) in plant cells.

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55
Q

What are plastids?

A

various shaped membranous organelles present in plant cells only

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56
Q

How many types of plastids are there?

A

3

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57
Q

What are the different types of plastid called?

A

White plastids/Leucoplasts, Chromoplasts, Chloroplasts

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58
Q

what are White plastids/Leucoplasts?

A

plastids that don’t contain any type of pigments. They work as centres for storing starches.

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59
Q

where can White plastids/Leucoplasts be found?

A

-in the roots of sweet potatoes
- stems of potatoes
- the internal leaves of cabbages.

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60
Q

What are Chromoplasts?

A

plastids that contain carotenoids, which are coloured red, yellow and orange

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61
Q

where can Chromoplasts be found?

A

-In the petals of flowers
- fruits
- in the roots of some plants such as rapeseed.

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62
Q

what do Chloroplasts do?

A

They contain chlorophyll that transforms the light energy of the sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose through photosynthesis.

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63
Q

Where can chloroplasts be found?

A

in the leaves and stems of green plants

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64
Q

What fluid do the chloroplasts contain?

A

The stroma

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65
Q

Where does the light independent photosynthesis reaction take place?

A

In the stroma so the stroma contains enzymes needed for light independent reactions

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66
Q

Where does the light dependent photosynthesis reaction take place?

A

In the thylakoids. So the thylakoids contain chlorophyll and enzymes

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67
Q

What 2 sets of reactions does photosynthesis consist of?

A

The light dependent reaction, where chlorophyll is used to harvest light energy and the light independent reaction, where glucose is formed

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68
Q

Are the chloroplasts single-membraned or double-membranes?

A

Double-membrane

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69
Q

What does the lamellae in the chloroplasts allow to happen?

A

Chemicals to pass between the grana

70
Q

What does the loop of DNA in the chloroplasts do?

A

The loop of DNA encodes some of the proteins needed for photosynthesis

71
Q

What are the starch granules in the chloroplasts a store of?

A

Glucose

72
Q

What do the ribosomes in the chloroplasts do?

A

They synthesise the proteins encoded by the chloroplast DNA

73
Q

What happens in photosynthesis?

A

In photosynthesis, the energy from light is used to react carbon dioxide with water to form glucose and oxygen

74
Q

What does the stroma contain?

A

layers of disc-shaped, compact structures known as thylakoids. Each group forms what’s known as the granum.

75
Q

What is the structure of the plasma membrane?

A
  • found in all cells
    -has a phospholipid bilayer that has molecules embedded within and attached on the outside
76
Q

What does the plasma membrane do?

A

It controls what enters and leaves the cell

77
Q

What is the structure of the flagellum?

A
  • Whip-like organism that can be found on the surface of certain cells e.g sperm cells
  • Larger than cillia
  • Has 9 pairs of microtubules arranged in the centre, plus 2 more
78
Q

What does the flagellum do ?

A

It helps move the cell

79
Q

What is the cell wall in plants made form?

A

Cellulose

80
Q

What is the cell wall of fungi made up of?

A

Chitin

81
Q

Where are cell walls found?

A

In plants, algae and fungi

82
Q

Describe the structure of the plant cell wall

A
  • Made of cellulose
  • Selectively permeable
  • The middle lamella acts as a glue between plant cells
83
Q

What is the cell ultrastructure?

A

What’s inside the cell when viewed under a high powered microscope

84
Q

What are prokaryotes?

A

Single celled organisms like bacteria and archaea

85
Q

Are organelles in eukaryotes membrane bound?

A

Yes

86
Q

Are organelles in prokaryotes membrane bound?

A

no

87
Q

What is a vesicle?

A

A small fluid filled sac that transports substances in and out of the cell

88
Q

are cytoskeletons found in eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells?

A

eukaryotic

89
Q

what is the cytoskeleton?

A

a network of protein threads arranged as microfilaments,microtubules and intermediate filaments, which allows for movement and stability

90
Q

what are microfilaments?

A

fine, thread-like protein fibres,
3-6 nm in diameter.

91
Q

What protein monomer are microfilaments made out of?

A

actin

92
Q

What do microfilaments do?

A

These carry out cellular movements
including gliding, contraction, and
cytokinesis via myosin

93
Q

Where can the microfilaments be found?

A

in the cytoplasm near the plasma membrane

94
Q

What are intermediate filaments?

A

permanent structures in your cell and are integral in maintaining cell structure and anchoring organelles in place.

95
Q

What is the size of intermediate filaments?

A

about 10 nm diameter – In
between microtubules and
microfilaments

96
Q

what is the internal structure of flagella made of

A

microtubules 9+2 rule

97
Q

what are cillia known as

A

motile cilia

98
Q

What does Pseudopodia mean?

A

false feet

99
Q

What forms Pseudopodia?

A

microtubule and filament structures.

100
Q

what is the function of Pseudopodia?

A

locomotion and the capturing of prey.

101
Q

is the cellulose cell wall permeable?

A

yes

102
Q

what are the cell walls in fungi made out of?

A

chitin

103
Q

Describe the steps of protein synthesis

A

1 An mRNA copy of the DNA is made in the nucleus via transcription
2 Proteins are synthesised in ribosomes on the RER via translation
3 Proteins undergo modification at the Golgi apparatus, where lipids or carbohydrates may be added
4 Some proteins are secreted from the cell membrane when transport vesicles fuse with cell surface membrane, some proteins work within the cell

104
Q

are nearly all prokaryotes single-celled?

A

yes

105
Q

Do prokaryotes have cell walls?

A

Yes, all prokaryotes have a cell wall made up of murein (a glycoprotein) and peptidoglycan

106
Q

do eukaryotes have cell walls?

A

Only some eukaryotes e.g. plant cells

107
Q

what are the cell walls in plants made up of?

A

cellulose

108
Q

which is larger in size-prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

A

prokaryotes

109
Q

what ribosomes do prokaryotes have?

A

70s

110
Q

what ribosomes do eukaryotes have?

A

80s

111
Q

which has membrane bound organelles- prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

A

eukaryotes

112
Q

do some prokaryotes have a waxy cuticle?

A

yes

113
Q

what does the waxy cuticle/slime capsule do in prokaryotes?

A

it helps to protect bacteria from drying out and from attack by cells of the immune system of the host organism

114
Q

do eukaryotes have a waxy cuticle?

A

no

115
Q

do eukaryotes have tails or flagellum?

A

tails

116
Q

do prokaryotes have tails or flagellum?

A

flagellum

117
Q

which cytoskeleton is simpler in structure- the cytoskeleton in prokaryotes or in eukaryotes?

A

the cytoskeleton in prokaryotes

118
Q

what’s the difference between the way DNA is arranges in prokaryotes and the way DNA is arranges in eukaryotes?

A

Inside the nucleus of eukaryotes, DNA is associated with histone proteins. Whereas in prokaryotes, the DNA is naked

119
Q

prokaryotic DNA is ….. and eukaryotic DNA is……

A

prokaryotic DNA is circular and eukaryotic DNA is linear

120
Q

what are plamsids?

A

small loops of DNA that are separate from the main circular DNA molecule. Plasmids contain genes that can be passed between prokaryotes e.g. genes for antibiotic resistance.

121
Q

what type of cell division do prokaryotes undergo?

A

binary fission, where no spindle fibres are involved

122
Q

what type of cell division do eukaryotes undergo?

A

mitosis or meiosis, where spindle fibres are present in order to separate chromosomes

123
Q

what do the pilli do in eukaryotes?

A

they attach to other cells or surfaces and are involved in sexual reproduction

124
Q

what does the infolding of the cell surface membrane of bacteria allow to happen?

A

allows photosynthesis to happen and nitrogen fixation

125
Q

Where does the light independent photosynthesis reaction take place?

A

In the stroma so the stroma contains enzymes needed for light independent reactions

126
Q

What is ‘s’?

A

A unit showing how quickly organisms can centrifuge

127
Q

What are examples of nutrient stores in prokaryotes?

A

Lipid droplets and glycogen granules

128
Q

What does the slime capsule surrounding prokaryotic cell walls protect prokaryotes from?

A

Phagocytosis

129
Q

What do the pilli do in bacterial cells?

A

Allow the bacterial cells to attach to other bacterial cells and allow the transfer of DNA between bacterial cells

130
Q

What are mesosomes?

A

Infoldings in bacterial cell membranes that are artefacts created when bacterial cells are prepared for electron microscopy

131
Q

Where is mRNA produced?

A

In the nucleus

132
Q

What are the destinations of proteins?

A

The cytoplasm, organelles e.g lysosomes, cell membrane, secreted from the cell e.g.hormones, antibodies

133
Q

Cells that secrete large amounts of proteins will have a lot of what organelle?

A

Rough endoplasmic reticulum e.g beta cells in the pancreas which make the hormone insulin

134
Q

In aerobic respiration, what is glucose broken down into?

A

Carbon dioxide and water and energy is transferred to ATP

135
Q

Where does glycolysis take place?

A

In the cytoplasm

136
Q

Where does the Krebs cycle take place?

A

In the mitochondria

137
Q

Where does oxidative phosphorylation take place?

A

In the mitochondria

138
Q

Where are the enzymes for the Krebs cycle found?

A

In the matrix (fluid)

139
Q

Where are the enzymes for oxidative phosphorylation found?

A

On the inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae)

140
Q

Does mitochondria have its own DNA?

A

Yes, it has mitochondrial DNA

141
Q

What does mitochondrial DNA contain?

A

The genes required for some of the enzymes involved in aerobic respiration

142
Q

Does mitochondria contain ribosomes?

A

Yes

143
Q

What do the mitochondrial ribosomes do?

A

They synthesise the proteins encoded by the mitochondrial DNA

144
Q

Cristae provide an increased surface area for…

A

The enzymes needed for oxidative phosphorylation

145
Q

What happens during phagocytosis?

A

Pathogens are engulfed by a white blood cell. The pathogen now becomes contained in a phagocytic vacuole. Lysosomes then fuse with the phagocytic vacuole and the lysosomal enzymes destroy the pathogen

146
Q

What is a plant cell vacuole surrounded by?

A

A membrane called the tonoplast

147
Q

What does the tonoplast do?

A

Controls which chemicals can enter and leave the vacuole

148
Q

What fluid does the vacuole in plant cells contain?

A

Cell sap

149
Q

What can contain coloured pigments to attract pollinators?

A

The cell sap in the vacuole

150
Q

What can contain waste chemicals produced by the plant cells?

A

The cell sap in the vacuole

151
Q

Does cell sap have a high or low water potential

A

Low

152
Q

How does cell sap in a plant cell having a low water potential help the plant?

A

The low water potential allows water to move into the plant cell by osmosis and this water enters the vacuole. This creates a hydrostatic pressure acting outwards. This causes the cytoplasm to press against the cellulose cell wall. The plant is now turgid and this turgidity helps to support the plant.

153
Q

Cell walls help provide……….. support to a cell

A

Structural

154
Q

What is the plasmodesmata?

A

Narrow threads of cytoplasm that connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells

155
Q

Apart from in prokaryotic cells, where elsecan 70s ribosomes be found?

A

In the mitochondria and

156
Q

Apart from in prokaryotic cells, where elsecan 70s ribosomes be found?

A

In the mitochondria and in the chloroplasts

157
Q

Is size a structural feature?

A

No

158
Q

What is the resolution of a light microscope?

A

0.2 micrometeres

159
Q

what is th emagnification of a light microscope?

A

X 1500

160
Q

Does a SEM have a lower resolution than TEM?

A

Yes

161
Q

micrometeres to centimeteres?

A

/ 10,000

162
Q

centimetres to millimetres?

A

X 10

163
Q

moicrometeres to millimeteres?

A

/ 1000

164
Q

micrometeres to nanometeres?

A

X 1000

165
Q

how do you calculate magnification?

A

image size/ actual object size

166
Q

What are the advantages of cell staining?

A
  • Makes the cell easier to see
  • Increases the contrast
  • Allows you to recognise the different parts of a cell
167
Q
A
168
Q

Describes the roles of the cytoskeleton

A
  • Maintaining the shape of the cell
  • The movement of the cellia
  • Changing the shape pf the cell (exocytosis, phagocytosis, pseudopodia)
  • Movement of vesicles to plasma membrane
  • The formation of the spindle fibres during mitosis
  • Holding organelles in place
169
Q

What are the roles of membranes within cells?

A
  • compartmentalisation
  • Isolation of the contents of the organelle i.e the hydrolytic enzymes.
  • Site for the attachment of enzymes
  • Controls what enters and leaves an organelle
  • Creates concentration gradients
170
Q
A

AS Biology (15 decks)

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