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Biology AS > Cells 3.2 > Flashcards

Cells 3.2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are cell walls in fungal cells made out of?

A

Chitin.

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2
Q

What type of cells can be unicellular and multiclellular?

A

Algal and Fungal.

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3
Q

What is stored in the nucleus which can be used to create chromosomes?

A

Chromatin.

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4
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A collection of similar cells.

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5
Q

What is an organ?

A

A group of different tissues.

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6
Q

What is an organ system?

A

A group of organs.

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7
Q

What is the cell-surface membrane made up of?

A

Lipids and proteins.

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8
Q

What is the function of the cell-surface membrane?

A

To regulate the movement of substances in and out of the cell as well a having receptor molecules which allows for it to respond to chemicals.

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9
Q

What is the largest organelle?

A

The nucleus.

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10
Q

What does the nucleus contain?

A

Chromosomes.

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11
Q

What is the function of the nucleus?

A

It controls the cellular activity, contains intructions to make proteins and the pores allow mRNA to move between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

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12
Q

What does the nucleolus make?

A

Ribosomes.

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13
Q

What is the nucleolus?

A

A dense area of DNA inside of the nucleus which is involved in the production of ribosomes.

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14
Q

What is the function of the mitochondria?

A

Aerobic respiration, it produces ATP.

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15
Q

Describe the structure of mitochondria.

A

It has a double membrane, the inner membrane is folded to form cristae and it is coatd in enzymes. There is also the matrix inside which conains enzymes for respiration.

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16
Q

What is the function of chloroplast?

A

Photosynthesis.

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17
Q

Describe the structure of the chloroplast.

A

It is small and flattened, surrounded by a double membrane, it has grana, lamellae and is filled with stroma.

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18
Q

What is stroma?

A

A thick liquid.

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19
Q

What links together the grana?

A

The lamellae.

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20
Q

What is stacked to make grana?

A

Thylakoids.

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21
Q

What are thylakoids?

A

Membranes inside the chloroplast.

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22
Q

What is the plural of granum?

A

Grana.

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23
Q

What is the plural of lamella?

A

Lamellae.

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24
Q

What is the function of the golgi apparatus?

A

To process and package new lipids and proteins as well as making lysosomes.

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25
Q

Describe the golgi apparatus.

A

It is fluid-filled membrane-bound flattened sacs that recieves vesicles with protein from the RER.

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26
Q

What is the function of the golgi vesicle?

A

It stores lipids and proteins and transports lipids and proteins, it transports them out of the cell through the cell surface membrane.

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27
Q

Describe the golgi vesicle.

A

It is a sall fluid filled sac in the cytoplasm which is surrounded by a membrane.

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28
Q

What is the function of the lysosomes?

A

It contains digestive enzymes and they digest invadinf cells as well as recycling worn out cell components.

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29
Q

What is the enzyme contained in lysosomes?

A

Lysozymes.

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30
Q

Describe the lysosomes.

A

It is a round organelle surounded by a membrane with no clear internal structure which is created by the golgi body.

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31
Q

What is the function of the ribosomes?

A

Protein synthesis.

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32
Q

Describe the ribosomes.

A

It is a very small organelle which is made up of proteins and RNA which is not surrounded by a membran.

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33
Q

What is the function of the RER?

A

It folds and processes proteins made by ribosomes.

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34
Q

What does RER stand for?

A

Rough endoplasmic reticulum.

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35
Q

Describe the RER.

A

It is a system of membranes which enclose a fluid filled soace, many folds in te membrane give a large surface area and the surface is covered in ribosomes.

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36
Q

What does SER stand for?

A

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

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37
Q

What is the function of the SER?

A

It synthesizes and processes lipids.

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38
Q

Describe the SER.

A

It is the same as the RER but does not have any ribosomes.

39
Q

What is the function of the cell wall?

A

To support the cell and keep its shape.

40
Q

Describe the cell wall.

A

It is made of cellulose in plants and algae, chitin in fungi. There are proes within th walls which connect two cells together by their cytoplasm.

41
Q

What are the pores within the cell walls called?

A

Plasmodesmata.

42
Q

What do the plasmodesmata do?

A

This connect two cells together by their cytoplam which allows for exchange and transport of substances.

43
Q

What is the function of the cell vacuole?

A

It keeps the cell turgid along with its rigid shape, it also stops the plants from wilting.

44
Q

Describe the cell vacuole.

A

It contains cell sap and is surrounded by tonoplast.

45
Q

What is the tonoplast?

A

The surrounding membrane of the cell vacuole.

46
Q

Give two functions of the cell-surface membrane.

A

To regulate movement of substances into and out of the cell and to respond to chemicals like hormones.

47
Q

What is a capsule made up of?

A

Secreted slime.

48
Q

What does the capsule do?

A

Helps to protect bacteria fro attack by cells of the immune system.

49
Q

What are plasmids?

A

Small loopds of DNA that are not part of the main circular DNA molecule.

50
Q

What do plasmids contain?

A

Genes for antibiotic resistance which are able to pass between prokaryotes.

51
Q

What are the two typs of microscopes?`

A

Light and electron.

52
Q

What is magnification?

A

How much bigger the image is compared to the specimen.

53
Q

What is resolution?

A

How well the microscope distinguishes between two points that are close together.

54
Q

What does TEM stand for?

A

Transmission electron microscope.

55
Q

What is the advantage of TEM?

A

It give a high resolution image so it shows small objects.

56
Q

What are disadvantages of TEMs?

A

They can only be used on thin, non-living specimen.

57
Q

What does SEM stand for?

A

Scanning electron microscope.

58
Q

What are advanatges of SEM?

A

They can be used on thick specimen and can be 3D.

59
Q

What are disadvantages of SEM?

A

They giver lower resolution images than TEM and can only be used on non-living specimen.

60
Q

What are the three stages of cell fractionation?

A

Homogenisation, filtration and ultracentrifugaion.

61
Q

What is homogenisation?

A

It is the vibrating / grinding of cells in a blended in order to break up the plasma membrane and release the organelles into the isotonic solution.

62
Q

What temperature must the solution in homogenisaton be?

A

Ice-cold.

63
Q

Why must the solution in homogenisation be ice cold?

A

In order to reduce the activity of ezmes which break down organelles.

64
Q

What does isotonic solution mean?

A

That the soluton should have the same concentration of chemicals as the cell to prevent damage to the organelles via osmosis.

65
Q

Why must the solution in homogenisation be buffered?

A

In order to maintain a constant pH.

66
Q

Describe the filtration stage of cell fractionation.

A

The homogenised cell solution is filtered through gauze in order to seperate large debris from organelles.

67
Q

Describe the ultracentrifugation stage of cell fractionation.

A

The cell fragments are placed into a tube and placed in a centrifuge on a low speed, this causes the heaviest organelles to go to the bottom and form a thick sediment. The lifhtr organells stay supsneded in the fluid above. This is drained into a new tube and the process is repeated but at a higher speed.

68
Q

What is the pellet in ultracentrifugation?

A

This is where the heavy organelles go to the bottom and form a thick sediment.

69
Q

What is the supernatant in ultracentrifugation?

A

This is where the lighter organelles stay suspended in the fluid above the pellet.

70
Q

What is heavier the nucleus or chloroplasts?

A

Nucleus.

71
Q

What is heavier the mitochondria or chloroplasts?

A

The chloroplasts.

72
Q

What is heavier the lysosomes or mitochondria?

A

The mitochondria.

73
Q

What is heavier the lysosomes or the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

The lysosomes.

74
Q

What is heavier the ribosomes of the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

The endplasmic reticulum.

75
Q

What is mitosis used for?

A

Growth, repair and asexual reproduction.

76
Q

When does the cell cycle start?

A

When a cell has been produced by cell division.

77
Q

When does the cell cycle end?

A

When the cell divides to produce two daughter cells.

78
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

Condensed mass of DNA which appears just before cell division.
Each chromosome is one super-coiled DNA molecule containing 1000s of genes.

79
Q

What is a chromatid?

A

One half of a double chromosome (present at the start of cell division).

80
Q

What is a centromere?

A

The point of attachment of two chromatids on a double chromosome.

81
Q

What is a centriole?

A

Bundles of protein fibres, found near the nucleus. Centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell during mitosis and form the spindle.

82
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

Division of the cytoplasm to produce two new cells.

83
Q

What does a chromosome consist of?

A

Two strands called sister chromatids which are joined in the middle by a centromere.

84
Q

What does each sister chromatid on a chromosome contain?

A

Identical genetic information so that each daughter cell also contains identical genetic information.

85
Q

What happens during interphase?

A

During interphase the cell
carries out normal functions, but also prepares to divide. The
cells DNA is unravelled and
replicated. The organelles
are also replicated. ATP
content is increased.

86
Q

What happens during prophase?

A

Chromosomes condense.

Centrioles move to opposite
ends of the cell, forming a
network of protein spindle
fibres.

Nuclear envelope begins to
break down so chromosomes lie
free in the cytoplasm.

Nucleolus is no longer visible.

87
Q

What is a centrosome?

A

An organelle that consists of two centrioles. A centriole is a structure made of microtubuel proteins arranged in a particular way.

88
Q

What happens during metaphase?

A

Chromosomes align in the
equator of the cell.

Each chromosome is attached
to a spindle fibre by its
centromere.

One chromatid from each
chromosome is attached, by
the microtubules, to each pole.

89
Q

What happens during anaphase?

A

Centromere of each
chromosome divides, separating
each pair of sister chromatids.

Spindle fibres contact, pulling
chromatids to opposite poles.
(V-shaped)

Cytokinesis starts

90
Q

What happens during telophase?

A

Chromatids reach the poles and
uncoil to become long and thin (now called chromosomes again).

Nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes – now have 2 nuclei.

Spindle fibres break down.

Cytokinesis finishes

91
Q

What is the mitotic index?

A

The mitotic index is the proportion of cells in a tissue sample that are undergoing mitosis. It lets you work out how quickly the tissue is growing.

92
Q

What is the equation for mitotic index?

A

Mitotic index = number of cells with visible chromosomes / total number of cells observed.

93
Q
A

Biology AS (12 decks)

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