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Cell biology semester 1 > CELLS > Flashcards

CELLS Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What’s a chimera?

A

having parts of different origins
e.g. a eukaryotic cell

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2
Q

What’s an endosymbiont?

A

organisms forming symbiotic relationships with another cell/organism

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3
Q

2 types of endosymbiont

A

intracellular
extracellular

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4
Q

what’s a plastid?

A

membrane-bound organelle

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5
Q

How are phylogenetic trees formed?

A

inferred from nucleotide/ amino acid sequence data

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6
Q

most common phylogenetic marker

A

small sub-unit ribosomal RNA (SSUrRNA)

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7
Q

ARCHEZOA hypothesis

A

eukaryogenesis involving exogenous origins of mitochondrion via phagocytosis of an alphaproteobacterium to form mitochondrion

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8
Q

remnant genome of mitochondria
*what does it encode

A

rRNA and protein-coding genes
2 rRNA’s (12S and 16S)
22 tRNA’s
13 essential genes
*encodes sub-units for oxidative phosphorylation enzyme complexes

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9
Q

origins of ER

A

Endogenous

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10
Q

gram-negative bacteria

A

don’t retain crystal-violet stain
- double membrane systems

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11
Q

chloroplast exogenous origin

A

cyano bacteria

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12
Q

plasma membrane functions

A
  • enclose cell content/ separate from environment
  • maintain concentrations of cell substances
  • communication w environment/other cells
  • barrier
  • cell growth/ shape change/ movement/ division
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13
Q

cytosol function

A

protein synthesis/ metabolic pathways

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14
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

lipid synthesis/ protein synthesis

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15
Q

golgi apparatus function

A

modification/sorting/packaging of proteins/ lipids

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16
Q

endosome function

A

sorting of endocytosed material

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17
Q

plasma membrane sub-unit
* polarity of parts

A

phospholipid
- hydrophilic phosphate head
hydrophobic fatty acid tails
* amphiphilic!

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18
Q

cholesterol effect on PM

A

decreases membrane permeability to small/ water-soluble molecules
prevent crystallization

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19
Q

4 phospholipids in plasma membrane

A

phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, and sphingomyelin

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20
Q

function of glycolipid asymmetry

A

extracellular to intracellular signal conversion
charge differences
binding sites
live and dead cell distuinguishment
sugar group addition

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21
Q

self-association of glycolipids

A

H-bonds from sugars / Van der Waals between hydrocarbon chains

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22
Q

oligosaccharides charge and function

A

net negative charge
alters electric field and ion concentrations

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23
Q

lectins

A

carb binding proteins
bind to sugar groups on other glycolipids/ glycoproteins

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24
Q

how is the PM fluid

A

rapid lateral diffusion
flexible hydrocarbon chains
flippases catalyzing movement
cis-double bonds create kinks in fatty acid tail/ shorter tail lengths

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25
Q

temp effect on cis bonds

A

more cis bonds as temp drops

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26
Q

types of membrane proteins

A

integral
peripheral
lipid attached

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27
Q

when are integral proteins released?

A

when detergents dissolve PM

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28
Q

where are lipid-attached proteins made?

A

ER
prior to cleaving and GPI anchor added via vesicle

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29
Q

when are peripheral proteins released?

A

when protein-protein interaction disrupting agents arrive

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30
Q

functions of membrane proteins

A

transporters
linkers
receptors
catalysis

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31
Q

how are transmembrane domains identified?

A

bioinformatic analysis ‘in silico’

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32
Q

glycocalyx components

A

glycoproteins/ glycolipids

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33
Q

glycocalyx function

A

protect cell chemically, physically, biologically
adhesion
recognition
storage
affect health and disease

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34
Q

glycoprotein links

A

N-linked
O-linked
proteoglycans

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35
Q

N-glycans

A

asparagine-linked

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36
Q

O-linked

A

serine/threonine-linked

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37
Q

proteoglycans

A

glycoproteins w GAGs
polysaccharide chains covalently linked to a protein core> GPI anchor

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38
Q

GAG

A

glycosaminoglycans

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39
Q

ruthenium red

A

stains carbohydrate layer of glycocalyx

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40
Q

detergents

A

small, amphiphilic molecules of variable structure
(more soluble than lipids)

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41
Q

detergent behaviour

A

aggregate to form micelles/ rapidly diffuse in/out
affected by temp, pH and salt conc
displace lipid molecules
affect crystallization/purification

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42
Q

tpes of membrane diffusion

A

rotational
lateral

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43
Q

how are PM diffusion rates measured

A

FRAP
fluorescence recovery after photobleaching

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44
Q

FRAP process

A
  1. mark membrane protein w fluorescent group
  2. fluoresecnce group bleached w laser beam
  3. time for diffusion measured and diffusion coefficient measured
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45
Q

disadvantages of FRAP

A

can’t follow individual protein molecules

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46
Q

cortical cytoskeleton

A

spectrin meshwork maintaining integrity and shape of PM
*anaemia doesn’t have

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47
Q

cell cortex

A

actin filaments attached to PM

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48
Q

cell cortex functions

A

cell movement
endocytosis
filopedia production
restricts free diffusion of proteins

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49
Q

types of active transport

A

coupled
ATP-driven
light/redox driven

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50
Q

membrane-bending protein function

A

deforms bilayers
(dynamic control of membrane shape)

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51
Q

membrane-bending protein mechanisms

A

insertion of hydrophobic protein domains/ lipid anchors
rigid scaffold formation
clustering of specific membrane lipids

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52
Q

selectivity filter

A

narrowest region of gated ion channel, limiting rate of passage

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53
Q

types of gated ion channels

A

voltage-gated
ligand-gated extracellular
ligand-gated intracellular
mechanically gated

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54
Q

Vmax in relation to gated membrane carriers

A

rate at which carrier can flip between conformational states

55
Q

Km

A

concentration of solute when rate of transport is half the maximum value

56
Q

location of nuclear localization signal

A

at N-terminal end and cleaved after synthesis

57
Q

functions of nuclear pores in envelope

A

small molecule diffusion
dynamic in/out movement
export mRNA/ribosome components
import structural proteins and gene transcription/ regulation proteins

58
Q

SV40 virus nuclear localization signal

A

mutation means short sequence is lacking (Thre replacing Lys)

59
Q

nuclear localization signal function

A

responsible for selectivity of active nuclear import processes

60
Q

how is nuclear localization regulated?

A

regulated by turning signals on/off via phosphorylation of amino acids close to signal sequences

61
Q

transcription regulator mechanisms

A

bound to cytosolic proteins either anchored via cytoskeleton/ mask nuclear localization signal
gene released by stimuli

62
Q

NF-AT

A

nuclear factor of activated T-cells

63
Q

what is NF-AT

A

transcription regulatory protein in cytosol
phosphorylated state

64
Q

what are T-cells activated by in NF-AT?

A

foreign antigen
calcium ion concentration increase

65
Q

T cell nuclear activation mechanism

A

Reacting to the increase in calcium ion concentration, protein phosphatase binds to NF-AT, dephosphorylates and exposes nuclear import signals/ blocks export signal

66
Q

what happens to the NF-AT once in the nucleus ?

A

activates gene txn of genes required for T-cell activation

67
Q

Use of NF-AT pharmaceutically

A

used in immunosuppressive drugs when inhibited to block T-cell activation

68
Q

How is the NF-AT response stopped?

A

Ca2+ concentration decreases
NA-FT released from calcineurin
re-phosphorylation inactivates import signals and exposes export

69
Q

3 types of cytoskeleton

A

actin
microtubules
intermediate filaments

70
Q

actin in plasma membrane

A

thin, flexible stress fibres
maintains cell shape
aids surface movement
6-8nm
requires ATP to build
regulates binding protein

71
Q

actin in cytoplasm

A

polar, flexible filaments in cortex, found in bundles
dynamic polymerisation/ depolymerisation

72
Q

microtubules structure/ location/ formation

A

25nm diameter tubes
made up of tubulins, requiring GTP to build up
grow from centrosome

73
Q

microtubules function

A

motor proteins
intracellular movement
chr movement in cell division
organelle/vesicle shuttling
breakdown mitotic spindle

74
Q

intermediate filaments structure

A

10nm diamter
alpha-helical coiled coil
assembly regulated by phosphorylation
staggered tetramer = 1 filament

75
Q

intermediate filament functions

A

mechanical strength
flexible
excess stress prevention
tensile force distribution

76
Q

actin functions

A

cell motility
contraction/ adhesion/ mechanosensation

77
Q

actin formation

A

G-actin monomers added to either end (more rapidly at+)
ATP hydrolysis fuels polymerisation
actin-binding proteins regulate assembly

78
Q

villi

A

non-motile actin filaments increasing SA for absorption

79
Q

microtubule assembly

A

dimers of alpha (-) and beta (+) tubulin formed up of 13 protofilaments via GTP

80
Q

kinesins

A

motor proteins w head/tail regions
globular
bind ATP
tails bind cargo

81
Q

dyneins

A

drive cilia/ flagella
9+2 microtubule arrangement
bends structure via microtubule sliding

82
Q

cilia

A

motile
numerous/ short
aid locomotion
microtubules

83
Q

flagella

A

few/ long
aid cell locomotion
microtubules

84
Q

intermediate filaments in the nucleus

A

nuclear lamins (inner membrane meshwork) act as chr/nuclear pore anchorage sites
strong > coiled fibrillar protein-packing

85
Q

cytoplasmic intermediate filaments

A

keratins in epithelia
vimentin/ vimentin-related tissue
neurofilaments
N-/C- terminal domains vary in size

86
Q

examples of vimentin

A

connective tissue, muscle cells, neuroglial cells

87
Q

nuclear lamins

A

LMNA/LMNB/LMNC
fibrous meshwork of inner nuclear envelope
provide structural support
cell division breakdown

88
Q

keratin

A

structural/ mechanical strength in cytoplasm
indirect connection via desmosomes

89
Q

myosin I

A

all cells
head/tail
intracellular organization
moves cargo along actin

90
Q

myosin II

A

muscle cells
dimer
filaments
contractile

91
Q

spectrin

A

inner plasma membrane
provides mech strength/ stability/ shape
link membranes
motor proteins / filament systems
RBC membranes

92
Q

interphase

A

normal functions
DNA replication for 2 identical chromatids
S phase

93
Q

G1

A

cells produce RNA, enzymes and growth proteins
main growth
checkpoint

94
Q

G2

A

cell growth
errors corrected
tubulin increase
checkpoint

95
Q

early prophase

A

centrosomes replicated prior
chromatin coils

96
Q

late prophase

A

centrosomes to opposite nuclear ends
nucleolus dissapears
2 chromatids appear

97
Q

metaphase

A

centrosome reaches pole
spindles appear
chromosomes line along equator via centromeres

98
Q

anaphase

A

chromosomes to opposite poles

99
Q

telophase

A

nuclear envelope/ nucleolus reformation
spindle breakdown
cytokinesis
chromosomes uncoil

100
Q

Meiosis 1 middle prophase I

A

synapsis to form bivalents
centrosomes to opp nuclear ends

101
Q

Meiosis 1 late prophase I

A

nuclear envelope breakdown
crossing over
nucleolus disappears

102
Q

Meiosis I metaphase 1

A

bivalent alignment
spindle forms

103
Q

Meiosis 1 anaphase 1

A

whole chr movement to poles

104
Q

Meiosis I telophase I

A

nuclear envelope/ nucleolus reformation
cytokinesis

105
Q

meiosis II

A

mitosis behaviour

106
Q

somatic

A

non-reproductive cells

107
Q

2 phases of prokaryotic division

A

replication
division (binary fission)

108
Q

4 phases of eukaryotic division

A

M
G1
G2
S

109
Q

G1 checkpoint

A

assesses size
environment favorability
DNA damage
space availability

110
Q

G2 checkpoint

A

assesses DNA replication
correct DNA
cell size
environment availability

111
Q

M checkpoint

A

assesses whether spindles are attached to centromeres

112
Q

CdK

A

cyclin dependent kinases

113
Q

cyclin-dependent kinases

A

require cyclins to activate
add phosphate from ATP to amino acid in protein
differ and destroyed at different checkpoints

114
Q

quiescent state

A

G0/pause
maintenance period
reversible/ irreversible depending on cell type

115
Q

PDGF

A

platelet-derived growth factor

116
Q

FGF

A

Fibroblast growth factor

117
Q

EGF

A

epidermal growth factor

118
Q

growth factor concentration

A

10^-10 M

119
Q

where are growth factors found/ recognised

A

found in serum
receptors in PM

120
Q

apoptosis

A

cell shrinks
nuclear fragmentation
apoptotic bodies digested/ recycled

121
Q

necrosis

A

accidental cell death due to physical/chemical injury

122
Q

necrosis process

A

cell/ nucleus swells leading to leakage
cell lysis
triggers inflammatory response

123
Q

2 types of apoptosis triggers

A

physiological
pathogenic

124
Q

physiological activation of apoptosis

A

used in embryonic development, removing/remodelling tissues
homeostasis maintenance
cell number control

125
Q

pathogenic activation

A

viral infection
heat shock
toxins
cytotoxic T cells
stressed/damaged cell removal

126
Q

apoptosis activators

A

hormonal signals
cell signalling

127
Q

apoptosis suppressors

A

survival factors
extracellular matrix contact

128
Q

consequences of apoptosis

A

P53 activation
mitochondria leak
caspase activation

129
Q

caspase

A

enzyme, when activated, cleaving nuclear lamins, activating DNAase, cleaving cytoskeleton
leaves apoptotic bodies

130
Q

what happens when the cytoskeleton is cleaved?

A

cells detach from neighbours and lose contact with ECM

131
Q

p53 weight

A

53KDa

132
Q

p53

A

transcription factor acting as tumour suppressor

133
Q

DNA damage mechanism

A
  1. damage activates p53
  2. p53 blocks progression of cell cycle at G1 checkpoint
  3. mitochondrial membrane rupture > cytochrome C leaks between inner/outer membrane
  4. cytochrome C in cytosol activates caspases which activate DNAase to cleave lamins and cytoskeletons
  5. apoptosis

Cell biology semester 1 (6 decks)

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