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Biology > Cell structures > Flashcards

Cell structures Flashcards

1
Q

What does TEM stand for?

A

Transmission electron microscope

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2
Q

What is the source of image in a TEM?

A

the electrons transmitting through the specimen

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3
Q

how is the image focussed in a TEM?

A

electromagnets straightening the electron beam

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4
Q

What is the magnification of a TEM?

A

x500,000-x2,000,000

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5
Q

What is the resolution of a TEM?

A

0.2-0.5nm

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6
Q

Can you view live specimen in a TEM and why?

A

no- specimen are placed in a vacuum

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7
Q

Is staining required in a TEM?

A

yes- heavy metal staining is used

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8
Q

What are some advantages of TEM?

A
  • high resolution
  • high magnification
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9
Q

What are some disadvantages of TEM?

A
  • very expensive
  • black and white images
  • specimen can be damaged by electron beam
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10
Q

What does SEM stand for?

A

scanning electron microscope

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11
Q

What is the source of image in an SEM?

A

the electrons reflecting off the sides of the specimen

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12
Q

How are SEM microscopes focussed?

A

electromagnets straightening the electron beam

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13
Q

What is the magnification of an SEM?

A

x100,000-x500,000

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14
Q

What is the resolution of an SEM?

A

3-10nm

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15
Q

Can live specimen be used in an SEM and why?

A

no- they are placed in a vacuum

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16
Q

Is staining required in an SEM?

A

heavy metal staining is used

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17
Q

What are some advantages of SEM?

A
  • high resolution
    -high magnification
  • 3D imaging
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18
Q

What are some disadvantages of SEM?

A
  • expensive
  • black and white images
  • specimen can be damaged by electron beam
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19
Q

What is the source of image in a light microscope?

A

the lamp

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20
Q

How is a light microscope focussed?

A

objective lens and eye piece lens

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21
Q

What is the magnification of a light microscope?

A

x1500-x2000

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22
Q

What is the resolution of a light microscope?

A

200nm/ 0.2um

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23
Q

Can you view live specimen in a light microscope and why?

A

yes- they are only placed on a slide and they can be suspended in water

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24
Q

Is staining required for a light microscope?

A

no- only if you are viewing cells as their organelles are colourless

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25
Q

What are some advantages of light microscopes?

A
  • portable
  • cheap
  • easy to use
    -can view live specimen
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26
Q

What are some disadvantages of light microscopes?

A
  • low magnification
  • low resolution
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27
Q

What is the source of image in a laser scanning confocal?

A

a laser with high light intensity scans image

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28
Q

How is the image focussed in a laser scanning confocal?

A

eye piece lens and objective lens

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29
Q

what is the magnification of a laser scanning confocal?

A

high

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30
Q

what is the resolution of a laser scanning confocal?

A

very high

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31
Q

can you view live specimen in a laser scanning confocal?

A

yes only a laser of light is used

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32
Q

is staining required for laser scanning confocal?

A

no

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33
Q

what are some advantages of a laser scanning confocal?

A
  • 3D images
  • non-invasive
  • high resolution
  • high magnification
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34
Q

What are some disadvantages of a laser scanning confocal?

A
  • very expensive
  • requires training
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35
Q

why should cover slips be added at an angle?

A

to prevent air bubbles

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36
Q

why must samples on a slide be thin?

A

to let light through so you can see the organelles

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37
Q

what are the two main groups of bacteria in gram staining called?

A

gram positive and gram negative

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38
Q

what is the process of gram staining?

A

1) bacteria is stained with crystal violet
2) all bacteria is stained purple
3) add iodine and stain is fixed due to reaction
4) washed in alcohol
5) gram positive will stain purple and negative will lose stain
6) stained with safranin
7) gram neg will stay red and pos will stay purple

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39
Q

why does gram positive stain?

A
  • they have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls
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40
Q

why does gram negative stain red?

A
  • thinner layer of peptidoglycan
  • will not retain violet stain well during the decolouring process
  • cell walls are not susceptible to penicillin
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40
Q

who made the first microscope and how did they do it?

A
  • Hans and Jensen
  • put lenses in a tube
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41
Q

who also claimed they invented the first microscope?

A

Galilei

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42
Q

who first observed cells?

A

Robert Hooke

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43
Q

What are proposed theories based on?

A

current and accepted evidence

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44
Q

what is the importance of a microscope?

A
  • allows you to view cells
  • many organisms are unicellular so you cant see them without a microscope
  • allowed people to discover new organisms and processes
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45
Q

why do images tend to have a low contrast in a light microscope?

A
  • cells don’t absorb a lot of light
  • light is below and you view from above
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46
Q

what is the importance of staining?

A
  • increases contrast between components as they take up stains to different degrees
  • allows organelles to be visible for identification
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47
Q

what is gram staining?

A

a technique used to differentiate between two large groups of bacteria based on their different cell wall constituents

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48
Q

in a wet mount, what should be the same a glass and why?

A

the refractive index should be the same of that of glass to prevent diffraction

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49
Q

what is the definition of magnification?

A

how many times larger an image is compared to the actual image

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50
Q

resolution definition

A

the smallest distance between two points which can still be distinguished as separate entities

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51
Q

what is the equation for the actual size of an image?

A

actual size = image size/ magnification

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52
Q

how is a dry mount specimen prepared?

A

cut into very thin slices with a sharp blade

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53
Q

how is a wet mount specimen prepared?

A

specimen suspended in water or immersion oil

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54
Q

how is a squash slide specimen prepared?

A

specimen suspended in water or immersion oil and lens tissue is used to gently press down the cover slip

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55
Q

how is a smear slide specimen prepared?

A

edge of slide is used to smear the sample

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56
Q

what are some examples of specimens used in dry mounts?

A
  • hair
  • insects
  • pollen
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57
Q

what are some examples of specimens used in squash slides?

A

soft samples

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58
Q

what are some examples of specimens used in wet mounts?

A
  • aquatic samples
  • other living organisms
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59
Q

what are some examples of specimens used in smear slides?

A
  • blood
  • any liquid
60
Q

how does diffraction and wavelength of light affect resolution?

A

shorter wavelength yield means higher resolution

61
Q

explain why staining is needed in terms of contrast?

A

staining increases contrast between components as they take up stains at different degrees

62
Q

give some examples of positively charged dye and what is it attracted to?

A
  • crystal violet and methylene blue
  • attracted to negatively charged material in cytoplasm
63
Q

give examples of negatively charged dyes and what is it repelled by?

A
  • nigrosin and congo red
  • repelled by negatively charged cytosol
64
Q

what is the purpose of fixing (in slide production)?

A

to preserve specimens (chemicals such as formaldehyde)

65
Q

what is sectioning (in slide preparation)?

A

specimens are dehydrated with alcohol and placed in a wax block before thinly sliced with a microtome

66
Q

what is the purpose of staining (in slide preparation)

A

to view different organelles as different stains show different structures

67
Q

what is mounting (in slide preparation)?

A

specimens are secured to a microscope slide with a cover slip

68
Q

what is differential staining?

A

staining that helps differentiate between different types of organelles

69
Q

what does CLEAPSS stand for and what do they do?

A
  • Consortium of Local Education Authorities for the Provision of Science Services
  • provide support for practical work in schools
70
Q

what is on a student safety sheet?

A
  • identify specific risks
  • advice on the measures to be taken to reduce risks
  • action to take in emergency
71
Q

why are most slides pre-prepared in schools?

A
  • harmful nature of stains
  • long complex process needed to produce high quality sections
72
Q

how does penicillin affect gram positive staining?

A

it inhibits the peptidoglycan production, making the cells fragile

73
Q

how does penicillin affect gram negative bacteria?

A

it has peptidoglycan between membranes so the penicillin doesn’t work aswell

74
Q

what is the acid fast staining technique used for?

A

to differentiate species of mycobacteria from other bacteria

75
Q

what dye is used in acid fast staining?

A

carbolfuchsin dye

76
Q

what is used to carry dye into the cells in acid fast staining?

A

a lipid solvent

77
Q

how do you calculate the number of eye piece divisions?

A

number of micrometres/ number of eye piece divisions

77
Q

what is a scale micrometer?

A

a microscope slide with an accurate scale in um
- 100 divisions= 1mm
- 1 division= 0.01mm= 10um

78
Q

what is an eye piece graticule?

A
  • a glass disc with a scale on it
  • inserted into a microscope eyepiece
  • the scale remains the same at each magnification
79
Q

how do you convert from um to nm?

A

x1000

80
Q

how do you convert from mm to um?

A

x1000

81
Q

how do you convert from cm to mm?

A

x10

82
Q

what is the function of a vacuole?

A
  • maintain turgor (correct pressure)
  • selectively permeable
  • plants have a permanent vacuole
83
Q

what is the function of cillia?

A
  • sensory- detect things
  • movement
84
Q

what is the function of the flagella?

A

movement

85
Q

what is the function of the cell wall?

A
  • shape
  • rigidity
  • strength
86
Q

what is the function of centrioles?

A

produce spindle fibres and cytoskeleton

87
Q

what is the function of the plasma membrane?

A
  • controls what goes in and out
  • separation
  • surface for reactions
88
Q

how thick is the plasma membrane?

A

7nm

89
Q

what is the function of the chloroplasts?

A

photosynthesis

89
Q

what is the function of the lysosomes?

A
  • contains digestive enzymes
  • breaks down old organelles, bacteria and foreign bodies
89
Q

what is the function of ribosomes?

A
  • proteinsynthesis
  • attached to RER or free floating
90
Q

what is the function of the mitochondria?

A

aerobic respiration (in the cristae) which produces ATP

91
Q

what is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?

A

synthesis and transports lipids and steroids (lipid synthesis)

91
Q

what is the function of the golgi apparatus?

A

processes and packages vesicles

91
Q

what is the structure of the nuclear envelope?

A
  • double membrane
  • has pores
92
Q

what is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)?

A
  • protein synthesis
  • transport of proteins
93
Q

what is the size of a nuclear pore?

A

120nm

94
Q

what is the function of the nuclear envelope?

A

contains genetic material in a certain place

95
Q

what is the function of the nucleolus?

A

makes RNA and ribosomes

96
Q

what is the function of the nucleus?

A
  • contains genetic material (DNA)
  • cell division
96
Q

what is the function of a cytoskeleton?

A
  • provides shape for cells without cell walls
  • movement of cells e.g cillia and flagella
  • formation of spindle fibres that move chromosomes
  • keep organelles in place
  • move organelles e.g vesicles
96
Q

what is a cytoskeleton?

A

network of protein fibres

96
Q

where is the cytoskeleton present?

A

in eukaryotic cells

97
Q

what is the plasma membrane around organelles for?

A
  • separate contents from cytoplasm
  • controls what can enter and leave the organelle
  • surface for reactions to occur on
    - eg mitochondria and chloroplasts
98
Q

what is the plasma membrane around cells for?

A
  • controls what leaves and enters as it is partially permeable
  • barriers to certain substances
  • keeps contents of cell together
  • separates cell contents from the environment
98
Q

what is the process of protein synthesis?

A

1) instructions in the nucleus are transcribed into mRNA
2) mRNA leaves nucleus via nuclear pores
3) mRNA travels to ribosomes where message is read and translated into proteins
4) vesicles transport protein to golgi
5) protein fuses to golgi
6) golgi processes and packages protein
7) protein in vesicles are budded off
8) vesicles fuse with [plasma membrane
9) protein is released through membrane pores (exocytosis)

98
Q

are organelles membrane bound in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

prokaryotes- non-membrane bound
eukaryotes- both membrane bound and non membrane bound

99
Q

do prokaryotes and eukaryotes of a nucleus?

A

prokaryotes- no
eukaryotes- yes

99
Q

what type of DNA does prokaryotes and eukaryotes have?

A

prokaryotes- circular
eukaryotes- linear

100
Q

what DNA organisation do prokaryotes and eukaryotes have?

A

prokaryotes- proteins fold and condense DNA
eukaryotes- associated with proteins called histones

100
Q

what is the cell type of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

prokaryotes- unicellular
eukaryotes- unicellular and multicellular

100
Q

what are prokaryotes and eukaryotes cell walls made of?

A

prokaryotes- peptidoglycan
eukaryotes- chitin in fungi
- cellulose in plants
- not present in animals

100
Q

is the cytoskeleton present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

prokaryotes- present
eukaryotes- present but more complex than prokaryotes

100
Q

do prokaryotes and eukaryotes contain extra chromosomal DNA?

A

prokaryotes- circular DNA called plasmids
eukaryotes- only present in certain organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria

101
Q

what is diffraction?

A

the tendency of light waves to spread as they pass close to physical structures such as those present in the specimens being studied

102
Q

what does metabolism involve?

A

the synthesis and the breaking down of molecules

103
Q

what are the three components of the cytoskeleton?

A

microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate fibres

104
Q

what are microfilaments?

A

contractile fibres formed from the protein actin

105
Q

what are microtubules?

A

globular tubulin proteins polymerise to form tubes that are used to form a scaffold-like structure that determines the shape of a cell

106
Q

what are the functions of intermediate fibres?

A

give mechanical strength to cells and help maintain their integrity

107
Q

what are centrioles composed of?

A

microtubules

108
Q

what is tonoplast?

A

the membrane of a vacuole in a plant cell

109
Q

what is safranin dye called in gram staining?

A

a counterstain

110
Q

what is resolution limited by?

A

the diffraction of light

111
Q

what is the size of the wavelength of the beam of electrons used in electron microscopy?

A

1nm

112
Q

what is an artefact and what is it caused by?

A

a visual structural detail caused by processing the specimen and not a feature of the specimen

113
Q

what type of microscopes do artefacts appear in?

A

both light and electron microscopes

114
Q

what is an example of an artefact?

A

the bubbles that get trapped under the cover slip

115
Q

what changes happen to the ultra structure of cells when undergoing prep for electron microscopy?

A
  • loss of continuity in membranes
  • distortion in organelles
  • empty spaces in the cytoplasm
116
Q

what is the beam splitter in a laser scanning confocal?

A

a dichroic mirror, which only reflects one wavelength (from the laser) but allows other wavelengths (produced by the sample) to pass through)

117
Q

what is the structure of a prokaryote?

A

a simple structure with just a single undivided internal areawh

118
Q

what type of organisms are made up of eukaryotic cells?

A

animals, plants and fungi

119
Q

what is the structure of a eukaryote cell?

A

complicated internal structure, containing many membrane bound nucleus and cytoplasm, which contains many membrane bound cellular components

120
Q

what type of permeability is a cellulose cell wall and what does it mean?

A

freely permeable so substances can pass in and out of the cell through the cellulose wall

121
Q

what do vacuoles contain?

A

cell sap

122
Q

what type of permeability is a vacuole and what does it mean?

A

selectively permeable which means that some small molecules can pass through it but others cannot

123
Q

what type of permeability is a vacuole that appears in an animal cell?

A

small and not permeable

124
Q

when did the first prokaryotic cell appear on earth?

A

around 3.5 billion years ago

125
Q

what were the early prokaryotes adapted to?

A

extremes of salinity, pH and temperature

126
Q

what are these early prokaryotes called?

A

extremophiles

127
Q

where can extremophiles be found today?

A

in hydrothermal vents and salt lakes

128
Q

what shape is the one chromosome prokaryotes have and why?

A

`supercoiled to make it more compact

129
Q

what are the genes of the chromosome in a prokaryote grouped in to?

A

operons

130
Q

what size are ribosomes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

prokaryotes- smaller- 70s
eukaryote- larger- 80s

131
Q

what type of reproduction do prokaryotes and eukaryotes do?

A

prokaryotes- binary fission
eukaryotes- asexual or sexual

132
Q

do prokaryotes and eukaryotes have a cell surface membrane?

A

they both do

Biology (8 decks)

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