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Biological Molecules Flashcards

1
Q

organic definition

A

relating to or belonging to the class of chemical compounds having a carbon basis

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2
Q

atom definition

A

the smallest component of an element having the chemical properties of the element

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3
Q

macromolecule definition

A

a very large molecule made up of smaller subunits. e.g. polysaccharides, nucleic acids and proteins

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4
Q

oxidation definition

A

chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons from one reactant to another

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5
Q

reduction definition

A

chemical reaction involving transfer of electrons from one reactant to another

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6
Q

covalent definition

A

a chemical bond formed by the sharing electrons between two atoms

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7
Q

catabolic defintion

A

reactions that involve breaking larger molecules into smaller ones

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8
Q

anabolic defintion

A

reactions that involve building smaller molecules into larger ones

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9
Q

molecule definition

A

the smallest unit of a compound that retains the chemical and physical properties of the compound

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10
Q

polymer definition

A

long chained molecules formed by combining many smaller molecules into a regular pattern

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11
Q

what is a condensation reaction?

A

a reaction in which a small molecule, usually water, is removed in the formation of a new bond

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12
Q

what is a hydrolysis reaction?

A

a reaction where water is used to break down a compound

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13
Q

carboxylase definition

A

the enzyme that aids the introduction of a carboxyl group in a substrate, often carbon dioxide

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14
Q

dehydrogenase definition

A

the enzyme that aids the introduction of hydrogen in a substrate

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15
Q

decarboxylase definition

A

the enzyme that aids the removal of a carboxyl group in a substrate

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16
Q

what substances suffix is -ase?

A

enzymes

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17
Q

what substances suffix is -ose?

A

sugar

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18
Q

metabolism definition

A

the total of all the biochemical reactions taking place in an organisms cells

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19
Q

monomer definition

A

a small molecule that is one of the units bonded together to form a polymer

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20
Q

what are proteins used for?

A

structure, transport, enzymes, antibodies and most hormones

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21
Q

what are lipids used for?

A

membranes, energy supply, thermal insulation and protective layers

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22
Q

what are carbs used for?

A

energy storage and supply, structure in some organisms

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23
Q

what is biochemistry?

A

the chemical reactions involving biological molecules

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24
Q

what are the four elements all living things are composed of?

A
  • carbon
  • oxygen
  • hydrogen
  • nitrogen
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25
Q

how many covalent bonds can carbon make?

A

4

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26
Q

how many bonds can nitrogen form?

A

3

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27
Q

how many bonds can oxygen form?

A

2

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28
Q

how many bonds can hydrogen form?

A

1

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29
Q

what are the biological molecules?

A
  • carbohydrates
  • lipids
  • proteins
  • nucleic acids
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30
Q

what elements are carbohydrates made of?

A

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (CHO)

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31
Q

what elements are lipids composed of?

A

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (CHO)

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32
Q

what elements are proteins composed of?

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (CHONS)

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33
Q

what elements are nucleic acids composed of?

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorous (CHONP)

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34
Q

what are the chemical groups that bond to carbon?

A
  • hydroxyl (-OH)
  • carboxyl (-COOH)
  • amine (-NH2)
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35
Q

do condensation reactions release or use a water molecule?

A

release

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36
Q

do hydrolysis reactions release or use a water molecule?

A

use

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37
Q

what bonds form between oxygen and hydrogen in a water molecule?

A

covalent

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38
Q

why doesn’t the oxygen and hydrogen in a water molecule have equal charges?

A

the electrons in the covalent bonds are not shared equally , oxygen takes a greater share so is slightly negative, leaving hydrogen slightly positive

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39
Q

what overall charge does a water molecule have?

A

neutral

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40
Q

what type of molecule is water overall?

A

a polar molecule

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41
Q

what charge is oxygen in water?

A

delta negative

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42
Q

what charge is hydrogen in water?

A

delta positive

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43
Q

where do hydrogen bonds form in relation to water?

A

between the positive and negative regions of separate water molecules

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44
Q

are hydrogen bonds weak or strong?

A

they are weak individually but strong in high numbers

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45
Q

what are some properties of water?

A
  • cohesion
  • adhesion
  • high specific heat capacity
  • high latent heat of vaporization
  • density
  • solvent
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46
Q

what is the meaning of cohesion in water?

A

it is the attraction between particles of the same substance which results in surface tension

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47
Q

why does water have a greater surface tension than most other liquids?

A

because the hydrogen bonds among the surface water molecules resist stretching or breaking the surface

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48
Q

why is cohesion in water important for life?

A

it allows water to move up the xylem and some animals to remain on the surface

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49
Q

what is the meaning of adhesion?

A

the attraction between two different substances (water sticking to other surfaces)

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50
Q

how does adhesion of water work?

A

water will make hydrogen bonds with other surfaces

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51
Q

how is adhesion important for life?

A
  • allows water to move up the xylem
  • hold onto plant leaves
  • attach to spider webs
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52
Q

what is the meaning of specific heat capacity?

A

the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1kg of substance to change in temperature by 1 degree

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53
Q

how much of the world is covered in water?

A

3/4

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54
Q

how is high specific heat capacity in water important for life?

A
  • prevention of temperature fluctuations that are outside the range suitable for life
  • maintains a stable marine environment as it means the ocean can absorb or release large amounts of heat energy without changing temperature
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55
Q

what is the meaning of latent heat of vaporization?

A

the amount of energy required to convert 1kg of substance from a liquid to gas

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56
Q

how is water having a high latent heat of vaporization important for life?

A
  • helps to moderate our climate
  • stops organisms overheating as it keeps the water on earth as liquid
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57
Q

water is ______ dense as a solid?

A

less

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58
Q

water has hydrogen bonds that are constantly being _____ and ____________?

A

broken and reformed

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59
Q

what type of structure does ice form?

A

forms a crystal like lattice where molecules are fixed at a set distance

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60
Q

why is water being dense important for life?

A
  • prevents water from freezing from the bottom
  • ice forms on the surface first which creates insulation
  • makes transitions between seasons less abrupt
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61
Q

why is water being a solvent important for life?

A
  • transportation
  • so reactions can occur
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62
Q

what are the functions of carbohydrates?

A
  • respiratory substrate- source of energy
  • for storage
  • source of starch in plants
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63
Q

what are some structures that carbohydrates are present in?

A
  • plant cell walls
  • deoxyribose and ribose nucleic acids
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64
Q

how many carbon atoms does ribose have?

A

5

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65
Q

see IRL card for ribose structure

A

/

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66
Q

how many carbon atoms does glucose have?

A

6

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67
Q

how many carbon atoms does fructose have?

A

6

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68
Q

what are the three groups of carbohydrates?

A
  • monosaccharides
  • disaccharides
  • polysaccharides
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69
Q

what are some examples of monosaccharides?

A

glucose, fructose, ribose

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70
Q

what types of sugars are monosaccharides?

A

simple sugars

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71
Q

what types of sugars are disaccharides?

A

double sugars

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72
Q

what are disaccharides formed from?

A

two monosaccharides

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73
Q

what are polysaccharides formed from?

A

hundreds of monosaccharides

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74
Q

what is an example of triose?

A

glyceraldehyde

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75
Q

what are some examples of pentose?

A
  • ribose
  • deoxyribose
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76
Q

what are some examples of hexose?

A
  • glucose
  • fructose
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77
Q

how many carbon atoms does triose have?

A

3

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78
Q

how many carbon atoms does pentose have?

A

5

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79
Q

how many carbon atoms does hexose have?

A

6

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80
Q

what are the three main groups of monosaccharides?

A
  • triose
  • pentose
  • hexose
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81
Q

what are the properties of disaccharides?

A

sweet and soluble

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82
Q

what are the groups of disaccharides?

A
  • maltose
  • lactose
  • sucrose
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83
Q

what are the monomers of maltose?

A

two alpha glucoses

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84
Q

what are the monomers of lactose?

A

glucose and galactose

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85
Q

what are the monomers of sucrose?

A

glucose and fructose

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86
Q

how do disaccharides form?

A

through a condensation reaction

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87
Q

where does the condensation reaction form between two monosaccharides?

A

between the hydroxyl groups

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88
Q

what type of bond is formed between the hydroxyl groups of two monosaccharides?

A

1,4 glycosidic

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89
Q

how can disaccharides such as maltose be broken down into its monomers?

A

by the addition of water

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90
Q

what are the groups of polypeptides?

A
  • amylose
  • amylopectin
  • cellulose
  • glycogen
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91
Q

what is the monomer of amylose?

A

alpha glucose

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92
Q

what is the monomer of cellulose?

A

beta glucose

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93
Q

what is the monomer of amylopectin?

A

alpha glucose

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94
Q

what is the monomer of glycogen?

A

alpha glucose

95
Q

what type of bonds form in glycogen?

A

alpha glucose 1,6 linkages

96
Q

what type of bonds form in amylose?

A

alpha glucose 1,4

97
Q

what type of bonds form in amylopectin?

A

branches start with 1,6 glycosidic linkages and other bonds are alpha a1,4 glycosidic linkages to form the chains

98
Q

what type of bonds form in cellulose?

99
Q

what is the overall shape of amylose?

A

coils into helix

100
Q

what is the overall shape of amyopectin?

A

highly branched

101
Q

does glycogen have fibres/ fibrils?

102
Q

what is the overall shape of cellulose?

A

long and straight

103
Q

what is the overall shape of glycogen?

104
Q

does amylopectin have fibres/ fibrils?

105
Q

does amylose have fibres/ fibrils?

106
Q

does cellulose have fibres/ fibrils?

107
Q

is amylose found in plant or animals?

108
Q

is amylopectin found in plant or animals?

109
Q

is cellulose found in plant or animals?

110
Q

is glycogen found in plant or animals?

111
Q

what is the function of amylose?

A

hydrolyses the glycosidic bonds

112
Q

what is the function of cellulose?

A

helps withstand high pressure

113
Q

what is the function of amylopectin

A

plants store it then hydrolyse it when they need a supply of energy

114
Q

why can amylopectin be hydrolysed quicker than amylose?

A

amylopectin has more exposed glucose units to release energy rapidly

115
Q

what is starch made up of?

A
  • amylose (20%)
  • amylopectin (80%)
116
Q

what is the function of glycogen?

A

storage of sugars

117
Q

what is glycogen stored as?

A

granules in the cytoplasm of cells

118
Q

what is glycogen mostly made by?

A

liver and muscles

119
Q

what would complete hydrolysis of a protein produce?

A

amino acid

120
Q

what type pf covalent bond is used to link two monosaccharides together?

A

glycosidic bonds

121
Q

name two electronegative atoms?

A

oxygen and nitrogen

122
Q

what are polysaccharides?

A

large insoluble molecules composed of many hundreds to thousands of sugar units

123
Q

what atoms are removed in a condensation reaction?

A

OH and H to produce H2O

124
Q

what are lipids?

A

non-polar macromolecules containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

125
Q

why does glucose need to be stored?

A

when it is broken down in respiration it releases ATP so glucose is a soluble source of energy

126
Q

what are the four types of lipids?

A
  • fatty acids
  • glycerides
  • non glyceride lipids
  • complex lipids
127
Q

what are the two types of fatty acids?

A
  • saturated
  • unsaturated
128
Q

what are the two types of glycerides?

A
  • neutral glycerides
  • phospho-glycerides
129
Q

what are the three types of non glyceride lipids?

A
  • waxes
  • sphingolipids
  • steroids
  • steroids
130
Q

what are the two types of sphingolipids?

A
  • sphingomyelins
  • glycolipids
131
Q

what is the type of complex lipid?

A

lipoproteins

132
Q

what are triglycerides formed from?

A

one glycerol and three fatty acids

133
Q

what bonds form in trriglycerides?

A

ester bonds

134
Q

how are ester bonds formed?

A

condensation reaction

135
Q

what is it called when ester bonds are formed?

A

esterification

136
Q

what is glycerol?

A

a type of alcohol

137
Q

what are the functions of triglycerides?

A
  • long term energy storage
  • thermal insulation to reduce heat loss
  • cushioning to protect organs
  • buoyancy for aquatic animals
138
Q

see IRL card for triglyceride formation (x2)

139
Q

what are phospholipids?

A

modified triglycerides that contain a phosphate group

140
Q

where are phospholipids found?

A

in the cytoplasm of every cell and form the basis of membranes

141
Q

what is the structure of phospholipids?

A
  • it is hydrophilic (has a charge) so will interact with and attract water
  • fatty acid tails don’t have a charge so are hydrophobic
142
Q

what are sterols?

A

a type of lipid found in cells (not fats or oils)

143
Q

what is cholesterol?

A

a type of sterol

144
Q

where is cholesterol produced?

A

liver and intestines

145
Q

is cholesterol insoluble or soluble?

146
Q

what is the function of cholesterol?

A
  • found in the phospholipid membrane where it helps to regulate fluidity and adds stability
  • used to produce vit D, steroid hormones and bile
147
Q

what are the general functions of lipids?

A
  • respiratory substrate (releases twice as much energy as 1g of carbs)
  • membrane formation and hydrophobic barrier
  • hormone production
  • electrical insulation for nerve impulse transmission
  • waterproofing
148
Q

are double bonds present in saturated lipids?

149
Q

are double bonds present in unsaturated lipids?

150
Q

what does the name of saturated lipids mean?

A

all the carbon atoms form the maximum number of bonds with H atoms

151
Q

what does the name of unsaturated lipids mean?

A

1 double bond- monosaturated
2 or more double bonds- polyunsaturated

152
Q

what does the fatty acid tail do in unsaturated lipids?

A

causes the molecule to bend and so cant pack close together

153
Q

are saturated lipids solids or liquids and why?

A

solid- the molecules can pack close together

154
Q

are unsaturated lipids solids or liquids and why?

A

liquid at room temperature because the carbon atoms are spread apart due to the bend

155
Q

are saturated lipids found in animals or plants?

A

animals (humans)

156
Q

are unsaturated lipids found in animals or plants?

A

plants and humans

157
Q

what impact does saturated lipids have on the human diet?

A

may lead to coronary heart disease and obesity

158
Q

what is the role of proteins?

A
  • structural
  • antibodies to bind to antigens
  • enzymes for catabolism and anabolism
  • hormones to act as chemical messengers
  • transport e.g haemoglobin
159
Q

how are amino acids used by proteins?

A

building blocks for proteins

160
Q

how many naturally occurring amino acids are there?

161
Q

what is the composition of the 20 naturally occurring amino acids?

A

5 non-essential (as we can make them from transmission)
9 essential as only obtained from diet
6 conditionally essential as only needed by infants/children

162
Q

what are amino acids the monomers of?

163
Q

what is the structure of amino acids?

A
  • the R group varies in each amino acid giving different amino acids
  • the simplest example is glycine where the R group is H
164
Q

how are amino acids different?

A
  • differences in the R group define each amino acid
  • the elements they contain and charges they may carry effect how proteins fold and therefore their shape
165
Q

what shape is insulin?

166
Q

what shape is haemoglobin?

A

conjugated

167
Q

what is the shape of kerratin?

168
Q

what is the shape of collagen?

169
Q

what is the shape of catalase?

A

conjugated

170
Q

what is the shape of elastin?

171
Q

what is the structure of insulin?

A

compact and roughly spherical in shape

172
Q

what is the role of insulin?

A

regulation of blood glucose concentration

173
Q

is insulin soluble or insoluble?

174
Q

describe the structure of haemoglobin?

A

4 subunits, each having one polypeptide chain and one heme group

175
Q

what is the role of haemoglobin?

A

carried oxygen from the lungs to tissues or organs

176
Q

is haemoglobin soluble or insoluble?

177
Q

describe the structure of kerratin?

A

sheets of polypeptide chains that extend in the same direction

178
Q

what is the role of kerratin?

A

helps form hair, nails and skin outer layers

179
Q

is keratin soluble or insoluble?

180
Q

describe the structure of collagen?

A

composed of three chains

181
Q

what is the role of collagen?

A

provides structure and support to connective tissues

182
Q

is collagen soluble or insolubble?

183
Q

describe the structure of catalase?

A

tetramer composed of 4 subunits

184
Q

what is the role of catalase?

A

decompose hydrogen peroxide to protect cells

185
Q

is catalase soluble or insoluble?

186
Q

describe the structure of elastin?

A

repeated sequences of 3 to 9 amino acids

187
Q

what is the role of elastin?

A

allows tissues in body to stretch and shrink

188
Q

is elastin soluble and insoluble?

189
Q

what are the levels of protein structure?

A
  • secondary
  • primary
  • tertiary
  • quaternary
190
Q

what do the elements in carbs usually appear in the ratio of?

191
Q

See paper flashcard for alpha glucose

192
Q

see paper flashcard for beta glucose

193
Q

glucose molecules are _________ and _________ in water?

A
  • polar
  • soluble
194
Q

why is hydrogen soluble in water?

A

the hydrogen bonds that form between hydroxyl groups and water molecules

195
Q

what is sucrose made up of?

A

fructose and glucose

196
Q

what is lactose made from?

A

galactose and glucose

197
Q

where is ribose present?

A

present in RNA nucleotides

198
Q

what are pentose monosaccharides?

A

sugars that contain five carbon atoms

199
Q

where is deoxyribose present?

A

in DNA nucleotides

200
Q

what bond forms between alpha glucoses?

A

glycosidic bonds

201
Q

what do two alpha glucoses with glycosidic bonds form?

202
Q

what is mRNA?

A

a copy of DNA sequence

203
Q

what is the primary structure?

A

the sequence that particular amino acids are arranged in

204
Q

what are two types of secondary structures in proteins?

A

alpha helix and beta pleated sheets

205
Q

what are alpha helix?

A

chain of amino acids that coil into an alpha helix due to hydrogen bonding

206
Q

where is the attraction between in an alpha helix?

A
  • oxygen in -CO on one amino acid
  • hydrogen in -NH group on an amino acid 4 places ahead
207
Q

what are beta pleated sheets?

A

polypeptide chains which lie parallel to one another joined by hydrogen bonds

208
Q

how can hydrogen bonds be broken down in beta pleated sheets?

A

by changing the temperature or pH

209
Q

what is the tertiary structure?

A

coils and pleated sheets starting to form

210
Q

what are tertiary structures held together by?

A
  • hydrogen bonds
  • hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions
  • ionic bonds
  • disulphide bridges
211
Q

where do hydrophobic parts of the R group move to and why?

A

the centre of the polypeptide to avoid water

212
Q

how are globular proteins formed?

A

interactions with the hydrophobic and hydrophylic parts in the protein causes the amino acid chain to twist which changes the shape into globular proteins

213
Q

why are globular proteins water soluble?

A

water molecules can easily cluster around them

214
Q

are hydrogen bonds the weakest or strongest bonds formed around the R group?

215
Q

where do ionic bonds form in proteins?

A

between oppositely charged R groups

216
Q

what are disulfide bridges?

A

types of covalent bonds that form between R groups that contain sulfur atoms

217
Q

what will happen if tertiary structures are exposed to heat?

A
  • the heat increases the kinetic energy of the molecule and makes parts of it vibrate faster
  • this means that the bonds that hold the protein in its globular shape are broken and its complex shape will unravel
  • so denatures
218
Q

why is the tertiary structure of proteins denaturing important in enzymes?

A

enzymes are the tertiary structure that defines the active site

219
Q

what is the quaternary structure?

A

the interactions between 2 or more individual proteins called subunits

220
Q

what are globular proteins?

A
  • proteins that have a compact spherical shape
  • they are usually soluble in water and play important roles in cellular processes such as enzymes, hormones and antibodies
221
Q

what are fibrous proteins?

A
  • long, insoluble molecules
  • high proportion of amino acids with hydrophobic R groups
  • primary structure is repetitive
222
Q

what are conjugated proteins?

A
  • globular proteins that contain a non-protein element (prosthetic group)
223
Q

see IRL flashcard for amino acid structure

224
Q

see IRL flashcard for structure of glycine?

225
Q

see IRL flashy for structure of phospholipid

226
Q

see IRL flashy for config of unsaturated lipid

227
Q

see IRL flashy for config of saturated flashy

228
Q

see IRL flashy for bonded water mols

229
Q

see IRL flashy for production of maltose

230
Q

see IRL flashy for nucleotide

231
Q

see IRL flashy for polarity of water mol

232
Q

see IRL flashy for formula of ribose, glucose and fructose

233
Q

see IRL flashy for formula of monosac

Biology (12 decks)

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