Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis Flashcards
How are oxidation and reduction different?
Oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an element, whereas reduction involves the gain of electrons and that oxidation frequently involves gaining oxygen or losing hydrogen, whereas reduction frequently involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen.
Oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an element, whereas reduction involves the gain of electrons and that oxidation frequently involves gaining oxygen or losing hydrogen, whereas reduction frequently involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen.
Oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an element, whereas reduction involves the gain of electrons and that oxidation frequently involves gaining oxygen or losing hydrogen, whereas reduction frequently involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen.
Outline the process of glycolysis, including phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP formation.
Step 1 - Glucose is phosphorylated. Two phosphate groups are added to glucose to form hexose biphosphate. These two phosphate groups are provided by two molecules of ATP.
Step 2 - Lysis of hexose biphosphate. Hexose biphosphate splits into two molecules of triose phosphate.
Step 3 - Each triose phosphate molecules is oxidised. Two atoms of hydrogen are removed from each molecule. The energy released by the oxidation is used to add another phosphate group to each molecule. This will result in two 3-carbon compounds, each carrying two phosphate groups. NAD+ is the hydrogen carrier that accepts the hydrogen atoms lost from each triose phosphate molecule.
Step 4 - Two pyruvate molecules are formed by removing two phosphate groups from each molecule. These phosphate groups are given to ADP molecules and form ATP.
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of cells. Two ATP molecules are used and 4 ATP molecules are produced. Therefore there is a net yield of two ATP molecules. Also, two NAD+ are converted into NADH + H+ during glycolysis.
Explain aerobic respiration
Glycolysis can take place without oxygen. This forms the anaerobic part of cell respiration and therefore is called anaerobic cell respiration. However, the pyruvate produced from glycolysis cannot be oxidised further without the presence of oxygen. The oxidisation of the pyruvate forms part of the aerobic respiration and therefore is called aerobic cell respiration. Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria of cells. The first reaction to take place is the link reaction.
explain the link reaction of aerobic respiration
Mitochondria in cells take up the pyruvate which is formed from glycolysis in the cytoplasm. Once the pyruvate is in the mitochondrion, enzymes within the matrix of the mitochondrion remove hydrogen and carbon dioxide from the pyruvate. This is called oxidation (removal of hydrogen or addition of oxygen) and decarboxylation (removal of carbon dioxide). Therefore, the process is called oxidative decarboxylation. The hydrogen removed is accepted by NAD+. The link reaction results in the formation of an acetyl group. This acetyl group is then accepted by CoA and forms acetyl CoA.
explain the krebs cycle of aerobic respiration
Step 1 - In the first stage of the Krebs cycle, the acetyl group from acetyl CoA is transferred to a four carbon compound. This forms a six carbon compound.
Step 2 - This six carbon compound then undergoes decarboxylation (CO2 is removed) and oxidation (hydrogen is removed) to form a five carbon compound. The hydrogen is accepted by NAD+ and forms NADH + H+.
Step 3 - The five carbon compound undergoes decarboxylation and oxidation (hydrogen is removed) again to form a four carbon compound. The hydrogen is accepted by NAD+ and forms NADH + H+.
Step 4 - The four carbon compound then undergoes substrate-level phosphorylation and during this reaction it produces ATP. Oxidation also occurs twice (2 hydrogens are removed). The one hydrogen is accepted by NAD+ and forms NADH + H+. The other is accepted by FAD and forms FADH2. The four carbon compound is then ready to accept a new acetyl group and the cycle is repeated.
The carbon dioxide that is removed in these reactions is a waste product and is excreted from the body. The oxidations release energy which is then stored by the carriers when they accept the hydrogen. This energy is then later on used by the electron transport chain to produce ATP.
explain the electron transport chain of aerobic respiration
Inside the inner membrane of the mitochondria there is a chain of electron carriers. This chain is called the electron transport chain. Electrons from the oxidative reactions in the earlier stages of cell respiration pass along the chain. NADH donates two electrons to the first carrier in the chain. These two electrons pass along the chain and release energy from one carrier to the next. At three locations along the chain, enough energy is released to produce ATP via ATP synthase. ATP synthase is an enzyme that is also found in the inner mitochondrial membrane. FADH2 also donates electrons but at a later stage than NADH. Also, enough energy is released at only two locations along the chain by electrons from FADH2. The ATP production relies on energy release by oxidation and it is therefore called oxidative phosphorylation.
explain the role of oxygen in aerobic respiration
Oxygen is important for cell respiration as at the end of the electron transport chain, the electrons are donated to oxygen. This occurs in the matrix at the surface of the inner membrane. At the same time oxygen binds with hydrogen ions and forms water.
If there is no oxygen then electrons can no longer pass through the electron transport chain and NADH + H+ can no longer be reconverted into NAD+. Eventually NAD+ in the mitochondrion runs out and therefore the link reaction and Krebs cycle no longer take place.
Explain oxidative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.
When electrons pass through the electron transport chain they release energy. This energy is then used to pump protons (H+) from the matrix across the inner mitochondrial membrane and into the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes. The space between the inner and outer membranes has a small volume and therefore as the protons move across they create a concentration gradient very quickly. This process is called chemiosmosis. There is now a high concentration of protons in the space between the inner and outer membranes and a low concentration of protons in the matrix.
The protons then move down the concentration gradient from the space between the inner and outer membranes back into the matrix. However, they can only move back across via an enzyme embedded in the inner membrane. This enzyme is called ATP synthase. The protons are transported back into the matrix through the channels of ATP synthase and as they do so they release energy. This energy is then used by ATP synthase to convert ADP into ATP. Since the electrons come from previous oxidation reactions of cell respiration and the ATP synthase catalyses the phosphorylation of ADP into ATP, this process is called oxidative phosphorylation. Chemiosmosis is necessary for oxidative phosphorylation to work.
Explain the relationship between the structure of the mitochondrion and its function.
Explain the relationship between the structure of the mitochondrion and its function.
Matrix: Watery substance that contains ribosomes and many enzymes. These enzymes are vital for the link reaction and the Krebs cycle.
Inner membrane: The electron transport chain and ATP synthase are found in this membrane. These are vital for oxidative phosphorylation.
Space between inner and outer membranes: Small volume space into which protons are pumped into. Due to its small volume, a high concentration gradient can be reached very quickly. This is vital for chemiosmosis.
Outer membrane: This membrane separates the contents of the mitochondrion from the rest of the cell. It creates a good environment for cell respiration.
Cristae: These tubular projections of the inner membrane increase the surface area for oxidative phosphorylation.
What does photosynthesis consist of?
Photosynthesis consists of light-dependent and light-independent reactions.
Explain the light dependent reactions
Photosynthesis occurs inside chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, a green pigment found inside the thylakoid membranes. These chlorophyll molecules are arranged in groups called photosystems. There are two types of photosystems, Photosystem II and Photosystem I. When a chlorophyll molecule absorbs light, the energy from this light raises an electron within the chlorophyll molecule to a higher energy state. The chlorophyll molecule is then said to be photoactivated. Excited electron anywhere within the photosystem are then passed on from one chlorophyll molecule to the next until they reach a special chlorophyll molecule at the reaction centre of the photosystem. This special chlorophyll molecule then passes on the excited electron to a chain of electron carriers.
The light-dependent reactions starts within Photosystem II. When the excited electron reaches the special chlorophyll molecule at the reaction centre of Photosystem II it is passed on to the chain of electron carriers. This chain of electron carriers is found within the thylakoid membrane. As this excited electron passes from one carrier to the next it releases energy. This energy is used to pump protons (hydrogen ions) across the thylakoid membrane and into the space within the thylakoids. This forms a proton gradient. The protons can travel back across the membrane, down the concentration gradient, however to do so they must pass through ATP synthase. ATP synthase is located in the thylakoid membrane and it uses the energy released from the movement of protons down their concentration gradient to synthesise ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The synthesis of ATP in this manner is called non-cyclic photophosphorylation (uses the energy of excited electrons from photosystem II) .
The electrons from the chain of electron carriers are then accepted by Photosystem I. These electrons replace electrons previously lost from Photosystem I. Photosystem I then absorbs light and becomes photoactivated. The electrons become excited again as they are raised to a higher energy state. These excited electrons then pass along a short chain of electron carriers and are eventually used to reduce NADP+ in the stroma. NADP+ accepts two excited electrons from the chain of carriers and one H+ ion from the stroma to form NADPH.
If the light intensity is not a limiting factor, there will usually be a shortage of NADP+ as NADPH accumulates within the stroma (see light independent reaction). NADP+ is needed for the normal flow of electrons in the thylakoid membranes as it is the final electron acceptor. If NADP+ is not available then the normal flow of electrons is inhibited. However, there is an alternative pathway for ATP production in this case and it is called cyclic photophosphorylation. It begins with Photosystem I absorbing light and becoming photoactivated. The excited electrons from Photosystem I are then passed on to a chain of electron carriers between Photosystem I and II. These electrons travel along the chain of carriers back to Photosystem I and as they do so they cause the pumping of protons across the thylakoid membrane and therefore create a proton gradient. As explained previously, the protons move back across the thylakoid membrane through ATP synthase and as they do so, ATP is produced. Therefore, ATP can be produced even when there is a shortage of NADP+.
In addition to producing NADPH, the light dependent reactions also produce oxygen as a waste product. When the special chlorophyll molecule at the reaction centre passes on the electrons to the chain of electron carriers, it becomes positively charged. With the aid of an enzyme at the reaction centre, water molecules within the thylakoid space are split. Oxygen and H+ ions are formed as a result and the electrons from the splitting of these water molecules are given to chlorophyll. The oxygen is then excreted as a waste product. This splitting of water molecules is called photolysis as it only occurs in the presence of light.
Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.
Photophosphorylation is the production of ATP using the energy of sunlight. Photophosphorylation is made possible as a result of chemiosmosis. Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their concentration gradient. During photosynthesis, light is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules. Electrons within these molecules are then raised to a higher energy state. These electrons then travel through Photosystem II, a chain of electron carriers and Photosystem I. As the electrons travel through the chain of electron carriers, they release energy. This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane and into the space within the thylakoid. A concentration gradient of hydrogen ions forms within this space. These then move back across the thylakoid membrane, down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase. ATP synthase uses the energy released from the movement of hydrogen ions down their concentration gradient to synthesise ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
Explain the light-independent reactions.
The light-independant reactions of photosynthesis occur in the stroma of the chloroplast and involve the conversion of carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. The light-independent reactions can be split into three stages, these are carbon fixation, the reduction reactions and finally the regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate. Collectively these stages are known as the Calvin Cycle.
During carbon fixation, carbon dioxide in the stroma (which enters the chloroplast by diffusion) reacts with a five-carbon sugar called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) to form a six-carbon compound. This reaction is catalysed by an enzyme called ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (large amounts present within the stroma), otherwise known as rubisco. As soon as the six-carbon compound is formed, it splits to form two molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate. Glycerate 3-phosphate is then used in the reduction reactions.
Glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced during the reduction reactions to a three-carbon sugar called triose phosphate. Energy and hydrogen is needed for the reduction and these are supplied by ATP and NADPH + H+ (both produced during light-dependent reactions) respectively. Two triose phosphate molecules can then react together to form glucose phosphate. The condensation of many molecules of glucose phosphate forms starch which is the form of carbohydrate stored in plants. However, out of six triose phosphates produced during the reduction reactions, only one will be used to synthesise glucose phosphate. The five remaining triose phosphates will be used to regenerate RuBP.
The regeneration of RuBP is essential for carbon fixation to continue. Five triose phosphate molecules will undergo a series of reactions requiring energy from ATP, to form three molecules of RuBP. RuBP is therefore consumed and produced during the light-independent reactions and therefore these reactions form a cycle which is named the Calvin cycle.
Explain the relationship between the structure of the chloroplast and its function.
The stroma - Contains many enzymes, including rubisco, which are important for the reactions of the Calvin cycle.
The thylakoids - Have a large surface area for light absorption and the space within them allows rapid accumulation of protons.
