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Patho Exam 1 > Cell Injury and Death > Flashcards

Cell Injury and Death Flashcards

1
Q

Some examples of Injurious agents to cells

A
  • Hypoxia
  • Heat and cold
  • Electricity
  • Chemical agents
  • Biologic agents
  • Radiation
  • Nutritional imbalances
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2
Q

Which type of gangrene results in crepitus (bubbles that can be felt under the skin)?

A

Gas

The only type of gangrene that causes crepitus is gas grene. The bubbles are the result of gas produced by the Clostridium infection

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3
Q

Pyknosis

A

Nucleus shrinks in size in necrosis

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4
Q

Facts about Free Radicals

A
  • Molecules with an unpaired electron in the outer electron shell
  • Extremely unstable and reactive
  • Can react with normal cell components:
    • Damaging them
    • Turning them into more free radicals
  • Normally removed from body by antioxidants
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5
Q

T/F If a cell does not make adaptive changes as a result of stress, it will die.

A

True.

Adaptive changes allow the cell to survive and maintain some degree of function. If the cell makes no changes or makes maladaptive changes as a result of stress, the cell will not survive.

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6
Q

Cell death resulting from severe hypoxia, most commonly caused by loss of blood supply (ischemia)

A large area of necrotic tissue

A

Gangrene

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7
Q

Two types of Cellular Death

A

Necrosis and Apoptosis

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8
Q

Examples of causes of cell death (Necrosis)

A
  • Trauma: mechanical stresses, temperature extremes, electrical forces, radiation
  • Intoxication: chemical injury (drugs, lead, mercury poisoning) or biological agent injury
  • Deficiency: lack of an essential nutrient
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9
Q

Programmed Cell Death

A

Apoptosis or “cell suicide”

  • Removes cells that are being replaced or have “worn out”
    • Turn on their own enzymes inside the cell, especially caspases
    • Digest their own cell proteins and DNA
    • Are then destroyed by white blood cells
  • energy dependent programmed cell death that helps maintain homeostasis
  • Normal process in the body
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10
Q

Results from autolysis or heterolysis, involves digestion of cell remains, typical abscess (pus) formation

A

Liquifactive Necrosis

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11
Q

_____ allows cells to survive in the short-term

A

Adaptation

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12
Q

Cell Changes with Aging.. Why??

A
  • Is it programmed into the cells?
    • Telomeres become too short; cell can no longer divide
  • Is it the result of accumulated damage?
    • Older cells have more DNA damage
    • Older cells have more free radicals
    • Cells can lose the ability to repair their telomeres
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13
Q

Karyolysis

A

change in nucleus where DNA is degraded in necrosis

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14
Q

Karyorrhexis

A

Nucleus becomes fragmented

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15
Q

Ischemic Cell Injury and Death

(Slide)

A
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16
Q

Importance of Calcium in the Cell

“Calcium Cascade”

A
  • Cell usually maintains low intracellular calcium
  • When calcium is released into the cell, it:
    • Acts as a “second messenger” inside the cell
    • Turns on intracellular enzymes, some of which can damage the cell
    • Can open more calcium “gates” in the cell membrane
      • Letting in more calcium
      • “Calcium cascade”
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17
Q

Excess ROS causes …

A
  • Cellular Damage
  • Leaking membranes
  • Calcium influx
  • Ultimately -> CELL DEATH
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18
Q

Stress Damages Cells by causing….

A
  • Direct damage to proteins, membranes, and DNA
  • ATP depletion
  • Free radical formation
  • Increased intracellular calcium
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19
Q

Has been associated with a predispositon to cancer

Is most often found in epithelial and connective tissue

A

Metaplasia

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20
Q
A
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21
Q

Anti-Oxidant Systems

(Slide)

A
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22
Q

Hallmark of irreversible cell injury or cell death is massive _____

A

Calcium Influx

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23
Q

Cell death due to physiological turn over of cells is called _____

A

Apoptosis

24
Q

Damage due to unpaired electrons that react with lipids and proteins

A

Free radical injury

  • damages cell membrane
  • is very unstable
  • may be formed in normal physiological processes
    • oxygen free radicals
  • can do significant harm if produced at a high rate
  • can form damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS)
25
Q

T/F Necrotic tissue may be reversed using high concentrations of oxygen

A

False

Necrotic tissue is already dead, so it cannot be restored to functional tissue.

26
Q

Stressed cells may fill up with ______

  • Unused foods
    • lipids
    • glycogen
  • Abnormal proteins
  • Pigments
  • Calcium Salts
A

Intracellular Accumulations

  • may interfere with metabolic functions of cells
  • may interfere with physical functions of tissues
  • may initiate an inflammatory response that can lead to organ enlargement
27
Q

Slide explaining the injurous agents

A
28
Q

How does the body protrect from reactive oxygen species

A

Superoxide dismutase (SOD) converts superoxide into hydrogen peroxide and then catalase converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen

29
Q

_____ include excessive cell swelling, and dramatic changes to cellular organelles

A

Morphologic characteristics

30
Q

Apoptosis is associated with which disease states

A
  • Cancer
  • Myocardial Infarction
  • HIV
  • Others
31
Q

Hypoxia causes _______

A

ATP depletion or “Power Failure”

  • Aerobic metabolism stops → less ATP is producedNa+/K+ ATPase cannot run fast enough
    • Cell swells up with water
  • Anaerobic metabolism used → lactic acid produced
    • Acid damages cell membranes, intracellular structures, and DNA
32
Q

Which of the following is correct: How does hypoxia cause cell damage?

  • Directly damages DNA
  • Diminishes ATP production
  • Forms free radicals
  • Increases intracellular calcium
A

Diminishes ATP production

Oxygen is a key ingredient for the majority of ATP production. With less oxygen, less ATP is produced, and the cell cannot function at the same level. If hypoxia is severe or prolonged, the cell will die.

33
Q

2 common types of necrosis

A

Coagulative and liquefactive

34
Q

A reversible process in which mature cell types are replaced by less mature cell types

A

Metaplasia

  • Is seen in smokers: columnar ciliated epithelial cells are replaced with flat squamous epithelial cells
35
Q

Explain what happens in hypoxic cell injury

A
  • is caused by limited oxygen (hypoxia) as a result of reduced blood flow (ischemia)
  • can lead to a state of hypoglycemia that impairs energy production
  • makes body switch from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism, increasing the production of lactic acid
  • changes the pH, which leads to damage
  • limits ATP production due to the now anaerobic metabolism
36
Q

An increase in the number of cells

A

Hyperplasia

  • Depends on whether a cell type can divide or not
    • nondividing cells (cardiac myocytes) cannot divide and undergo hypertrophy
    • dividing cells (epithelial cells) can divide and may undergo hyperplasia and hypertrophy
37
Q

A disordered growth and maturation of the cellular components of a tissue

A

Dysplasia

  • Disrupts the homogenous appearance of tissue by causing
    • change in cell size and shape
38
Q

Cell Injury causes…

A

CELL INJURY

  • Reversible injury > Cell recovery > and return to normal function
  • Apoptosis and programmed cell removal
  • Cell death and necrosis
39
Q

Initiated by pathologic stimuli from outside the cell and results in the dissolution or removal of that cell

A

Necrosis

40
Q

Necrosis involves activation of enzymes that digest cellular components

A

Autodigestion

This process may stimulate an inflammatory response

41
Q

Apoptosis can be Caused By:

A
  • Signaling factor attached to “death domains” of cell surface receptors
  • Mitochondrial damage inside the cell
  • Protein p53 activated by DNA damage
42
Q

Loss of homeostasis forms the basis of most _____ states

A

disease

43
Q

Is associated with the potential for cancer

A

Dysplasia

  • may also be found in ulcerative colitis
  • can persist and proceed to a cancer state
  • can mimic precancer states
  • usually seen in cervical cancer
44
Q

Why do cells change with aging?

A
  • Is it programmed into the cells?
    • Telomeres become too short; cell can no longer divide
  • Is it the result of accumulated damage?
    • Older cells have more DNA damage
    • Older cells have more free radicals
    • Cells can lose the ability to repair their telomeres
45
Q

Allows the stressed tissue to survive or maintain function

Examples:

  • Atrophy
  • hypertropy
  • hyperplasia
  • metaplasia
  • dysplasia
A

Cellular Adaptation

46
Q

Explain what happens in free radical injury

A
  • Is caused by unpaired electrons, especially reactive oxygen species (ROS)
    • are highly reactive and interact with lipids and proteins in the cell, especially cell membrane
    • creates activity that compromises the cell
  • Is normally prevented by the cell’s protection systems
    • Superoxide dismutase (SOD), which converts superoxide into hydrogen peroxide - Enzyme
      • form of molecular oxygen that has been radicalized
    • Catalase, which converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen - Enzyme
  • Is brought on by excess ROS, which forms when oxygen is limited
47
Q

The shrinkage of tissue or organ size due to a reduction in cell size

A

Atrophy

  • Physiologic comes from changes to the functional demands on the cell
  • Pathologic comes from stimuli

Examples

  • Disuse atrophy (decreased workload)
  • Denervation atrophy (loss of nerve connection)
  • Ischemic atrophy (loss of blood supply)
48
Q
  • Mr. X Had a Stroke …
    • Blood flow to part of his brain was cut off
    • His wife can understand why they gave him an anticoagulant, but she does not comprehend why he was also put on:
      • Oxygen
      • A calcium channel blocker

Question:

  • What is the explanation?
A

We are preventing an influx of calcium, placed on oxygen so ATP production doesn’t stop and become acidotic

49
Q

3 special types of necrosis that involve coagulative and liquefactive processes

A
  • Caseous necrosis
  • Fat necrosis
  • Gangrene
50
Q

An increase in cell size in response to stress, usually results in the increase of cell components

A

Hypertrophy

  • May be caused by
    • Hormonal stimulation (pregnancy)
    • Increrased functional demand (muscle)*heart
  • Initially increases functional capacity of the affected organ
  • results in eventual inability of the organ to compensate for the increased workload
51
Q

Cell death due to injury is called _____

A

Necrosis

52
Q

Gas Gangrene

A

Clostridium infection produces toxins and H2S bubbles, an anaerobic bacteria that damages the connective tissues

Can happen from injury or infection

53
Q

Unregulated death caused by injuries to cells

A

Necrotic cell death

  • Cells swell and rupture
    • cell contents often released
  • Inflammation results
  • Cells may undergo
    • Liquefaction
    • Coagulation
    • Infarction
    • Caseous necrosis
54
Q

Fine granular golden brown pigment formed from phospholipids and proteins derived from degenerating membranes

A

Lipofuscin

55
Q
  • Lack of arterial blood supply but venous flow can carry fluid out of tissue
    • Tissue tends to coagulate
  • Coagulative necrosis as a result of ischemia
A

Dry Gangrene

56
Q

A deprivation of oxygen that inhibits energy production in the cell

A

Hypoxic cell injury

57
Q
  • Lack of venous flow lets fluid accumulate in tissue
    • Tissue tends to liquefy and infection is likely
  • Occurs when tissue is infected with bacteria and phagocytic cells are recruited, releasing enzymes that lead to a liquefactive process
A

Wet Gangrene

Patho Exam 1 (6 decks)

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