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cell bitch Flashcards

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1
Q

absorption

A

the movement of substances from the external environment across the cell membranes into the internal environment of a cell or organism

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2
Q

amino acid

A

a nitrogen-containing compound that is a building block of proteins

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3
Q

apoptosis

A

the programmed series of events that leads to cell death as a result of the deconstruction of internal contents of the cell

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4
Q

assimilation

A

the process through which an organism incorporates nutrients from outside its body into the more complex structures needed in its fluid or solid parts

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5
Q

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

A

a high-energy compound composed of adenine, ribose and three phosphate groups; it releases energy for cellular reactions when its last phosphate group is removed and it is converted to ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

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6
Q

autotroph

A

an organism capable of making its own food from inorganic substances using light energy (through photosynthesis) or chemical energy (through chemosynthesis); includes green plants, algae and certain bacteria

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7
Q

Biomacromolecule

A

a molecule that has an important structural or functional role in cells

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8
Q

Carbohydrate

A

an organic compound that is a structural component of cells and a major energy source in the diet of animals; includes sugars, starches, celluloses and gums

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9
Q

cell

A

the basic structural unit of all life forms on Earth

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10
Q

cellular respiration

A

a series of cellular biochemical reactions and processes that use glucose and oxygen and produce carbon dioxide and water; the energy released is used to convert ADP to ATP

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11
Q

chemosynthesis

A

the synthesis of organic substances using energy from chemical reactions

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12
Q

chlorophyll

A

the green pigment found in chloroplasts; it is able to absorb light energy, making it available for photosynthesis

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13
Q

Chloroplast

A

a membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of plants and algae containing the green pigment chlorophyll; its main function is to be the site of photosynthesis and storage of carbohydrates

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14
Q

Cristae

A

the folded inner membranes in the matrix of the mitochondria, which provide increased surface area for cellular respiration

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15
Q

Cytoplasm

A

all the fluid, dissolved materials and organelles between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane

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16
Q

Cytosol

A

the part of the cytoplasm containing highly organised fluid material with dissolved substances; excludes the organelles

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17
Q

Disaccharide

A

two linked monosaccharide molecules

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18
Q

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A

an information molecule that is the universal basis of all organisms’ genetic material; it contains instructions, written in a chemical code, for the production of proteins by each cell

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19
Q

you can do this queen

A

oh yeah go queen

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20
Q

Endocytosis

A

the movement of solids or liquids into a cell from the environment via vesicle formation- the cell membrane extends out to surround the particle and englufls it(food filled vesicle is formed)

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21
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A

an organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of an interconnecting system of thin membrane sheets dividing the cytoplasm into compartments and channels; lipid synthesis occurs here

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22
Q

Endosymbiotic theory

A

the theory suggesting that chloroplasts and mitochondria arose from ancient prokaryote cells that were ingested by other prokaryote host cells

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23
Q

Enzyme

A

a tertiary structure proteins which catalyze reactions
a specific biological catalyst that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being altered itself by lowering the amount of energy required for the reaction to proceed

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24
Q

Eukaryote

A

a complex type of cell with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; a member of Domain Eukarya

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25
Q

Exocytosis

A

The material to be expelled is packaged into a vesicle inside the cell, which then moves towards the cell membrane, and then fuses into the cell membrane, allowing its contents to be released outside the cell

The process allows, large molecules or molecules in bulk to exit the cell 

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26
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

a collection of membranes that package and store substances into vesicles in preparation for their release from the cell

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27
Q

Glycoprotein

A

a protein molecule with an attached carbohydrate chain

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28
Q

Heterotroph

A

an organism that cannot synthesise its own organic compounds from simple inorganic materials; it depends on other organisms for nutrients and energy requirements

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29
Q

Inorganic compounds

A

small, simple compounds which do not contain both carbon and hydrogen; for example, water and carbon dioxide

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30
Q

Intercellular

A

occurring between cells

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31
Q

Intracellular

A

occurring within a cell

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32
Q

Ion

A

an atom or molecule that has an electrical charge due to losing or gaining electrons; used by cells as reactants for many cellular processes

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33
Q

Lipid

A

a type of organic molecule that includes fats and oils; insoluble in water

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34
Q

Lysosome

A

an organelle within the cytoplasm containing digestive enzymes

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35
Q

Magnification

A

the scaling up of an object’s size; a measure of the degree of enlargement of an observed object, measured by multiples such as 4×, 10×, 40× and 100×

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36
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

a ribonucleic acid formed in the nucleus that has a sequence complementary to DNA; it travels to the cytoplasm where its information is read by ribosomes to determine which amino acids are joined together to form proteins

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37
Q

Metabolism

A

the sum of all the biochemical reactions in an organism; can be divided into two types, catabolic reactions and anabolic reactions

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38
Q

Microscopy

A

the technical field of using microscopes to view samples and objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the eye)

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39
Q

Mitochondrion

A

an organelle within the cytoplasm that is the site of cellular respiration, releasing energy for the cell

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40
Q

Monomer

A

a small molecule that acts as a building block for macromolecules

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41
Q

Monosaccharide

A

a simple sugar, such as glucose, which cannot be broken down into smaller sugar molecules

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42
Q

Nucleic acid

A

a large organic molecule made up of monomers of nucleotides; DNA and RNA are the information-carrying molecules of the cell

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43
Q

Nucleolus

A

a site for assembling protein and RNA that will later form ribosomes; visible in a non-dividing cell

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44
Q

Nucleotide

A

an organic compound composed of a sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base; a subunit of DNA and RNA
the basic building block of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA)

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45
Q

Organelle

A

a structure, most often membrane-enclosed, that is suspended in the cytosol of a cell and that performs a specialist function; only eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles

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46
Q

Organic molecules

A

large, complex carbon compounds usually derived from a living thing; for example, glucose and starch

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47
Q

Photosynthesis

A

a metabolic process that converts the Sun’s light energy into stored chemical energy in the bonds of carbohydrates; carbon dioxide and water combine in the presence of light and chlorophyll to produce sugars and oxygen

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48
Q

Plasmid

A

a small, circular piece of DNA that is found in bacteria and is able to replicate independently of the cell’s main chromosome

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49
Q

Polymer

A

a large molecule built up from linking smaller molecules together

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50
Q

Polysaccharide

A

a type of complex carbohydrate that is made up of linked simple sugars

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51
Q

Prokaryote

A

a simple type of cell that lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; a member of domains Archaea or Bacteria

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52
Q

Protein

A

a large organic molecule, built up of amino acids, with specific structural and functional roles in living things; includes enzymes

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53
Q

Resolution

A

the measure of the clarity of the image; can be described as the minimum distance between two distinguishable but separate points

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54
Q

Ribosome

A

a small structure present in high numbers in all cells that builds amino acids into complex proteins; this organelle is not bound by a membrane

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55
Q

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

A

the single-stranded nucleic acid that functions in transcribing and translating information from DNA into proteins

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56
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)

A

endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes attached

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57
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)

A

endoplasmic reticulum with no ribosomes attached

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58
Q

Stem cell

A

an unspecialised, immature cell capable of giving rise to different kinds of specialised, differentiated cells

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59
Q

Stroma

function?

A

the jelly-like semi-fluid interior of a chloroplast

contains the chloroplast genetic system and a variety of metabolic enzymes, including those responsible for the critical conversion of CO2 to carbohydrates during photosynthesis.

equivalent in function to the mitochondria

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60
Q

Thylakoid membrane

A

highly folded membranes found in chloroplasts, specifically in plants and green algae. These membranes contain stacked (grana) and unstacked (stromal) regions and enclose an inner aqueous compartment called the lumen.the interconnected folded membranes within chloroplasts

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61
Q

Triglyceride

A

a simple lipid formed by linking glycerol with three fatty acids

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62
Q

Unicellular

A

having a single cell

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63
Q

Vesicle

A

a small, membrane-bound sac in the cytoplasm that transports, stores or digests substances

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64
Q

food

A

organic chemicals that provide energy and matter for living things to use.

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65
Q

Radio trophic (type of autotroph)

A

type of fungi are able to use melanin to capture the energy from radiation to create food.

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66
Q

model

A

a representation that describes, simplifies, clarifies or provides an explanation of the workings, structure or relationships within an object, system or idea.

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67
Q

diffusion

A

the net movement of particles from a region of high particle concentration to a region of lower particle concentration.

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68
Q

concentration gradient

A

The difference in particle concentration between the two regions

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69
Q

what causes difusion

A

because of the random kinetic movement of the particles, and its effects are seen when a concentration gradient exists until the particles are evenly distributed throughout the system. When that happens, equilibrium is said to be reached. Particles will continue to move randomly, but at equilibrium they move at equal rates in all directions

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70
Q

osmosis
passive process

A

the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane and down its concentration gradient. Water is the medium in which biochemical processes take place. Water also transports materials in solution, helps keep cells in shape and forms the fluid that bathes tissues. Water is described as the universal solvent.If you add sugar or salt to water, you are adding solute to solvent and making a solution.

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71
Q

dilute solution

A

relatively high concentration of water molecules compared to solute particles dissolved in it

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72
Q

concentrated solution

A

low concentration of solvent molecules and a high concentration of solute particles

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73
Q

hypotonic solution

A

lower solute concentration in extracellular fluid compared with intercellular fluid
water moves into the cell

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74
Q

isotonic solution

A

same concentration of solutions inside and outside of cells
no net movement of water

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75
Q

hypertonic solution

A

higher solute concentration in extracellular fluid compared with intarcellular fluid
water moves out of cells

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76
Q

solute particle

A

the substance that gets dissolved. For example, when you add sugar to water, the sugar is the solute.

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77
Q

solvent particle

A

the substance that does the dissolving. In the same example, water is the solvent because it dissolves the sugar.

78
Q

hypotonic solution example(lower solute concentration, water moves into cell)

A

pure water, plain unsweetened tea, sports drinks low in sugar & salt)

79
Q

hypertonic solution example(higher solute concentration, water moves out of cell)

A

sea water, sugar syrup, corn syrup

80
Q

crenation(osmosis)
red blood cells

A

red blood cells put in a hypertonic solution. cells shrink and crinkle, formation of abnormal notched surfaces on cells as a result of water loss through osmosis

81
Q

haemolysis(osmosis)
red blood cells

A

the breakdown of red blood cells. when red blood cells are placed in a hypotonic solution (less concentrated than the cells’ contents), causing water to flow into the cells via osmosis, which can lead to the cells swelling and bursting.

82
Q

how full turgor occur(osmosis)
plant cells

A

cell placed in hypotonic solution(solute concentration lower than cell sap.
water enters vacuole by osmosis, it expands, cytoplasm pushed outwards

83
Q

active transport energy

A

Requires the use of energy in the form of ATP. Energy is used to transport substances across the membrane from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration.

84
Q

how full plasmolysis occur (osmosis)
plant cell

A

cell placed in hypertonic solution (solute concentration higher than cell sap)
water leaves cell by osmosis, vacuole contracts, cytoplasm moves inwards

85
Q

active transport transportation

A

Active transport via a carrier protein in the membrane. Energy(ATP)is transferred to the carrier protein, enabling it to move the particles against a concentration gradient.

when energy provided carrier proteins take up particles on one side of the membrane and release them on the other side, against the concentration gradient

86
Q

facilitated diffusion
passive process

A

small, hydrophilic substances (sodium ions, glycerol) move through special integral proteins, channel proteins, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. each type of channel proteins allows only one type of molecule to diffuse

87
Q

simple diffusion

A

small hydrophobic molecules (e.g. lipids) or uncharged (carbon dioxide and oxygen gases) molecules move through the membrane unassisted, from an area of high to low concentration

88
Q

active transport

A

relatively small hydrophobic or hydrophilic molecules are pumped in or out of the cell by specific membrane proteins, carrier proteins or protein pumps, up(against) the concentration gradient from an area of low to high conentration

89
Q

Transport of relatively large molecules

A

Due to the fluidity of the cell membrane, large molecules can be transported Into or out of the cell. The cell membrane can break and reform.This requires energy in the form of ATP. The process of endocytosis allows large molecules or molecules in bulk to enter a cell. The process of exocytosis allows large molecules or molecules in bulk to exit a cell.

90
Q

iiiiiiiii

A

oooooo

91
Q

pinocytosis

A

engulfing of liquid droplets
the cell membrane folds inwards around the fluid and forms a vesicle
type of endocytosis

92
Q

Factors that affect exchange of materials

Chemical properties of a substance

A

Uncharged molecules can pass straight through

Charged particles can not pass straight through and required transport proteins

93
Q

Factors that affect exchange of materials

Physical properties of a substance

A

Size and shape affect whether or not a substance can pass through

Small molecules can slip past the phospholipids e.g. oxygen

Large molecules require a transport protein or a vesicle

94
Q

Cells with a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio can…

A

obtain nutrients and remove wastes more efficiently.

95
Q

almost 99% of the mass of an average human body is made up of only six elements:

A

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus.

96
Q

dynamic environments,

A

fresh water ponds, where conditions may change quickly.
unicellular organisms tend to live there

97
Q

Transmembrane proteins

A

proteins that extend across the entire membrane, past the hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. They function as transport proteins

98
Q

peripheral proteins

A

formed from amino acids they use for attachment to the cell membrane. The amino acid chains are hydrophilic, meaning that they are water-loving and do not mix with lipids or fats. This is the reason why they are not found within the cell membrane.
Unlike integral membrane proteins, peripheral proteins do not enter into the hydrophobic space within the cell membrane.

support, communication, enzymes, and molecule transfer in the cell.

99
Q

what maintains a low concentration of oxygen in the cytoplasm

A

Oxygen always tends to diffuse into cells because cells use oxygen in cellular respiration

100
Q

particles that cant pass through the phospholipid bilayer easily

A

Charged particles (such as sodium and chloride ions) and relatively large molecules (such as glucose and amino acids)

101
Q

water

A

the medium in which biochemical processes take place. Water also transports materials in solution, helps keep cells in shape and forms the fluid that bathes tissues. Water is described as the universal solvent. If you add sugar or salt to water, you are adding solute to solvent and making a solution

102
Q

solution(mixture of particles)

A

solvent particles + solute particles

103
Q

selectively permeable

A

Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that water molecules pass through them easily but solutes do not. If the concentration of water molecules inside a cell is lower than the concentration outside, water will diffuse into the cell until a balance or equilibrium is reached (where the net overall movement is zero).

104
Q

contractile vacuoles

A

fresh Water(hypertonic solution) moving into animal cells by osmosis can cause the fluid cell membrane to swell and eventually burst, killing the organism.

Unicellular organisms such as amoebae that live in fresh water have important regulatory mechanisms to combat these problems. They are able to remove excess water by forming little pools of water in organelles called contractile vacuoles in the cytoplasm. When these vacuoles stretch to a certain point, they contract and expel the water.

105
Q

how multicellular animals function efficiently because of extracellular fluid

A

In multicellular animals, cells are bathed in isotonic extracellular fluid. This means that cells can function efficiently because water diffuses equally in both directions, resulting in no net movement of water into or out of cells. To keep the internal environment of your body in isotonic balance, the solute concentration in the extracellular fluid is controlled by the concentration of solutes in blood plasma, which in turn is controlled by the kidneys.

106
Q

Adhesion protein

A

a membrane protein that helps link cells together

107
Q

Aquaporinswater

A

channels that are intrinsic membrane proteins and that selectively allow water or other small uncharged molecules to pass along the concentration gradient

108
Q

Active transport

A

the process whereby cells actively transport substances across a membrane from a low concentration to higher concentration of the substance; characterised by the fact that the process consumes energy

109
Q

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

A

a high-energy compound composed of adenine and ribose with three phosphate groups attached; it stores a usable form of energy; it releases energy for cellular reactions when its last phosphate group is removed and it is converted to ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
Free energy obtained from respiration can also be used to add a phosphate group to ADP, converting it to ATP. The ATP–ADP cycle is the cell’s way of shuttling energy between reactions
ATP ⇌ADP + P + energy

110
Q

Bilayera

A

double layer

111
Q

Carrier protein

A

a protein within membranes that assists other molecules to cross the membrane; in facilitated and active transport, carrier proteins have to change shape to pass a molecule across the membrane; with the use of energy in the form of ATP, they can transport specific small molecules or ions against their concentration gradients

112
Q

Cell membrane (plasma membrane)

A

the selectively permeable boundary of all living cells that maintains the contents of the cell and regulates movement of substances in and out of the cell

113
Q

Channel protein

A

a protein that forms channels within membranes to allow the passive passage of hydrophobic substances across the membrane; they catalyse movement of specific ions (or water) down their electrochemical gradient via passive transport, a process called facilitated diffusion

114
Q

Cholesterol

A

a type of lipid embedded in cell membranes that provides stability and allows fluidity

115
Q

Concentration gradient

A

the difference in concentration of a substance between two different regions

116
Q

💓

A
117
Q

Cytoplasm

A

all the fluid, dissolved materials and organelles between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane

118
Q

Cytosol

A

the fluid part of the cytoplasm, containing highly organised fluid material with dissolved substances; excludes the organelles

119
Q

Diffusion

A

the passive movement of particles from a high to a low concentration of that substance

120
Q

Endocytosis

A

the movement of solids or liquids into a cell from the environment via vesicle formation

121
Q

Enzyme

A

a biological catalyst that speeds up biological reactions without undergoing any change itself; most enzymes are proteins; all enzymes are macromolecules

122
Q

Equilibrium

A

the state reached when two solutions have the same concentration of solutes and the net movement is zero across a selectively permeable membrane

123
Q

hihihihihii

A

brbtbrbrbrbrbrbbr

124
Q

External environment

A

the environment surrounding a cell, outside the cell membrane

125
Q

Extracellular fluid

A

the fluid that bathes the outside of cells in multicellular organisms

126
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

a form of diffusion that requires a substance to be attached to a specific carrier molecule to move across a membrane

127
Q

Flaccid

A

floppy; describes the condition of a plant cell that has lost water

128
Q

Fluid mosaic model

A

a model whichdescribes membranes as a double layer of lipids, a lipid bilayer, with the ability to flow and change shape, like a two-dimensional fluid; specialised protein molecules are embedded in the lipid in various patterns, like a mosaic

129
Q

Hydrophilic

A

describes a substance that tends to interact with and dissolve in water

130
Q

Hydrophobic

A

describes a substance that avoids association with water

131
Q

Hypertonic

A

describes a solution with a higher solute concentration compared with another solution

132
Q

Hypotonic

A

describes a solution with a lower solute concentration compared with another solution

133
Q

Internal environment

A

(of a cell) all material contained within the cell membrane

134
Q

Ion

A

an atom or molecule that has an electrical charge due to losing or gaining electrons; used by cells as reactants for many cellular processes

135
Q

Isotonic

A

describes a solution with an equal solute concentration to another fluid

136
Q

Net change

A

the amount of change after considering the movement of particles across a membrane in both directions; the result after subtracting movement in one direction from movement in the other is the net change

137
Q

Osmosis

A

the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from regions of low solute concentration to high solute concentration

138
Q

Particle theory

A

(also known as the kinetic theory of matter) the theory stating that matter consists of tiny particles in constant motion; the motion of particles increases when they have higher energy

139
Q

Passive process

A

a process that take place without any input of energy

140
Q

Passive transport

A

the movement of molecules, across a membrane, that does not require the input of energy

141
Q

Permeable

A

describes a membrane through which substances can pass

142
Q

Phagocytosis

A

the cell menerane extends around a large particle forming a vesicle around the solid substance
type of endocytosis

143
Q

fart

A

🥹

144
Q

Plasmolysis

A

the cytoplasm pulling away from the cell wall because of water loss from the cell

145
Q

Receptor protein

A

a protein in a cell membrane that binds hormones and other signal molecules

146
Q

Recognition protein

A

a protein that acts as a marker on membranes

147
Q

Selectively permeable

A

describes a membrane that allows some substances but not others to pass across it

148
Q

Sodium–potassium pump

A

a membrane protein that uses energy to transport sodium ions out of, and potassium ions into, cells, against their concentration gradients

149
Q

Solutea

A

substance that can be dissolved in another substance

150
Q

Solution

A

a mixture of solute and solvent

151
Q

Solvent

A

a substance in which another substance can be dissolved to create a solution

152
Q

Surface-area-to-volume (SA : volume) ratio

A

the mathematical ratio of the size of the surface area (in two dimensions) compared to the volume of an object (in three dimensions

153
Q

Tissue

A

a group of specialised cells working together to perform a specific function

154
Q

Transport protein

A

a protein that carries molecules across membranes

155
Q

Turgid

A

describes a cell that is tight and rigid from absorbing water

156
Q

Wilt

A

to become limp and floppy

157
Q

difference between cell mebrane and nuclear membrane

A

The cell membrane is the outer boundary of the entire cell, controlling what enters and exits the cell. The nuclear membrane, also known as the nuclear envelope, specifically surrounds the nucleus within the cell, protecting the genetic material (DNA) and regulating the movement of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

158
Q

phagocytes

A

Cells that engulf material by the process of phagocytosis (endocytosis)

159
Q

examples of active transport

A

absorption of glucose into the cells lining the small intestine
the secretion of harmful or nonessential substances by the cells that make up the kidneys

160
Q

Substances that are secreted from cells

A

extracellular enzymes, hormones, extracellular products (such as mucus and waxes), milk proteins and antibodies.

161
Q

chemical properties of a substance
factor affecting movement of molecules

A
  1. Solubility: If a substance is soluble in water, it may easily move through the extracellular fluid and be transported across the cell membrane by various mechanisms, such as diffusion or facilitated transport.
  2. Charge: The charge of a molecule can affect its transport. Charged molecules may require specific transport proteins to help them cross the hydrophobic lipid bilayer of the cell membrane.
  3. Size and Structure: Larger molecules may not easily pass through the cell membrane and might need to be transported via endocytosis or other active transport methods.
  4. Polarity: Polar molecules may struggle to cross the nonpolar lipid bilayer of cell membranes without assistance, while nonpolar molecules may pass through more easily..

.

162
Q

The physical properties
factor affecting movement of molecules

A

of size and shape affect whether or not a substance moves across the cell membrane, how it is transported and how quickly it moves.

163
Q

distance
factor affecting movement of molecules

A

The greater the distance that a substance must travel, the slower the rate of diffusion. This places an upper limitation on cell size.

164
Q

factor affecting movement of molecules

A
165
Q

factors controlling biochemical processes

A

presence of specific enzymes

the nature and arrangement of internal membranes- mitochondria increases surface area by folding and stacking internal membranes

166
Q

enzymes

A

-biological catalyst
-usually an organic protein
-speeds up chemical reactions in cells
-lowers the activation energy
-unchanged and reusable
-each is specific to one type of reaction
-increase reaction rate without altering the chemical equilibrium between products and reactants
-increase rate of chemical reactions without themselves being consumed or permanently altered by the reaction
-without them metabolic reactions would be too slow for survival

167
Q

Activation energy

A

the minimum amount of initial energy required to start a chemical reaction
-supplied in the form of heat energy (thermal energy) that the reactant molecules absorb from their surroundings.
-Enzymes catalyse reactions in cells by lowering the activation energy required.
-They do not provide energy; instead, they weaken bonds within reactants to speed up the reaction.
-Enzymes are able to destabilise existing chemical bonds in reactants

168
Q

Catabolic reactions

A

the reactions in living things that involve the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones and usually release energy from breaking bonds
-Uses exergonic reactions bc they release energy when breaking down molecules
-Larger, more complex molecules break down to form smaller simple molecules
-Smaller, simple molecules build up to form more complex molecules
-Reactants have more stored energy than products
-Products have more stored energy than reactants
-energy is stored in the bonds of a molecule

169
Q

Induced-fit model of enzyme action

A

The bonds that form between an enzyme and its substrate are thought to slightly modify the shape of the enzyme so that the substrate can be accommodated by the enzyme.

enzymes active side is slightly changed to mold around the substrate when the enzyme substrate complex occurs due to the enzyme molding around the substrate it puts strain on the bones and therefore low, the activation energy product removed en return to original shape

170
Q

NADH and FADH2

A

are other energy-carrying molecules. NADH and FADH2function as coenzymes during cellular respiration.

171
Q

How NADH and FADH2 work together

A

NADH and FADH2 molecules transport energy electrons, from one section of a mitochondrion to another during the process of aerobic respiration.

172
Q

Photosynthesis

A

a biochemical process, in producers, that uses light energy and the raw materials,carbon dioxide and water, to synthesise organic compounds

Photosynthesis requires light as an energy source, and this is captured by the pigment chlorophyll found in the organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have an outer and an inner membrane. Thestroma is enclosed by the inner membrane. This is a gel-like matrix rich in enzymes. Suspended in the stroma is a membrane system, the thylakoid membranes. These are flat, sac-like structures that arecalled grana (singular granum) when grouped together into stacks.

173
Q

photosynthesis equation

A

6CO2 + 12H2O + light & chlorophyll→ C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

174
Q

light dependant stage photosynthesis

A

site in chloroplast-thylakoids/gana (stacks)

energy conversion- light energy to produce ATP from ADP and NADPH to NADP

Reactants- Water

Products- oxygen and hydrogen

other name- light reaction

Occurs in the chloroplast
*Occurs in the thylakoid membranes
*Light energy is absorbed by different pigments within the thylakoid membranes. *These pigments include chlorophyl (green).
*Chlorophylls absorb the wavelengths of blue and red light, and they reflect the green wavelengths.
*When a chlorophyll molecule in the thylakoid membrane absorbs light energy, electrons within the molecule become energised.
*The energy is used to split water molecules (H2O) into hydrogen ions (H+) and oxygen gas (O2).
*ATP molecules are formed in this stage.

175
Q

light independant stage photosynthesis

A

site in chloroplast- Stroma (fluid)

energy conversion- ATP and NADPH (hydrogen/electrons) carry energy to light independent reactions. ATP turns back to ADP + P and NADPH turns back to NADP

Reactants- co2 and hydrogen

Products- glucose, complex organic compunds, carbs

other names- calvin cycle

*In this reaction glucose molecules are produced from carbon dioxide.
*This reaction requires a supply of carbon dioxide gas, hydrogen ions and chemical energy in the form of ATP.
Hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide molecules are joined to make glucose and excess water
.ATP provide the chemical energy for the conversion of carbon dioxide to glucose molecules.

176
Q

ellular respiration equation

A

C6H12O6 6O2 → 6CO2 6H2O + energy (ATP)

177
Q

Cellular respiration
step one
Glycolysis (spiltting of glucose )

A

One molecule of glucose (6-carbon compound) is broken down into two 3-C molecules. Energy is invested initially to the value of 2 ATP. The process gives a net gain of 2 ATP.During the process, 2 NADare given 2 H atoms (and 2 electrons) to form 2 NADH.

178
Q

Cellular respiration
step two
Citric acid cycle(production of energy-carrying molecules NADH, FADH2, ATP)

A

In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria then, after a series of reactions, enter the citric acid cycle in the matrix. The carbon molecule enters a cycle of biochemical reactions. For each pyruvate molecule, the citric acid cycle produces 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 and releases 2 CO2. For each glucose molecule, the total yield from the citric acid cycle is 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2.The energy carried in the NADH and FADH2 molecules will lead to the further production of ATP via the electron transfer chain in aerobic respiration.

179
Q

Cellular respiration
step three
Electron transport chain (electrons and oxygen arrive at cristae to help ADP convert to ATP)

A

Electrons are transported by the energy-carrying molecules NADH and FADH2 from the citric acid cycle.The energy produces a chemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane.Oxidative phosphorylation occurs as ATP is generated from ADP + P. Oxygen and hydrogen ions combine to form water.Approximately 28 ATP are released (depending on whether NADH or FADH2 was shuttled into the mitochondria from the cytosol)
total ATP produced= 38

180
Q

GRANA

A

The stack of thylakoid membranes in a chloroplast that contain chlorophyll

180
Q

THYLAKOID MEMBRANES

A

The interconnected , folded membranes within chloroplasts

carry out the light reactions of photosynthesis. They are arranged into stacked and unstacked regions called grana and stroma thylakoids, respectively, that are differentially enriched in photosystem I and II complexes.

180
Q

Photosynthesis
chloroplast
step one

A

Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis.
*The stroma is a gel like matrix rich in enzymes, enclosed by the inner membrane.
*Suspended in the stroma is the thylakoid membranes.
*These are flat, sac-like structures that are called grana when grouped together into stacks.

181
Q

reactants

A

he starting materials in a biochemical reaction that are transformed into products. They require an input of energy, known as activation energy, to initiate the reaction. Unlike enzymes, reactants are consumed during the reaction, forming new chemical bonds and resulting in different molecules as the final products.

182
Q

active site

A

ach enzyme has a precise region on its surface to which the substrate can become attached.

specific and unique and shaped due to the specific folder and bonding in the tertiary structure of the protein
due to the specific active site enzymes can only attach to substrates that are complementary in shape

183
Q

enzyme substrate complex

A

when an enzyme-controlled reaction takes place, the enzyme and substrate molecules become joined together for a short time

184
Q

Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis

A

Abiotic factor such as light intensity, carbon dioxide, availability, and temperature

185
Q

Cellular respiration

A

biochemical process that occurs in different location in the side of mitochondria and metabolizes, organic compounds glucose, aerobically and anaerobically to release usable energy in the form of ATP

186
Q

Cellular respiration

A

biochemical process that occurs in different location in the side of mitochondria and metabolizes, organic compounds glucose, aerobically and anaerobically to release usable energy in the form of ATP

187
Q

Specialisation

A

(of cells) refers to the possession of specific features that relate to a specific role or function

188
Q

translocation

A

organic compounds, such as sugars (produced during photosynthesis), are transported from where they are made (source) to where they are needed or stored (sink)

189
Q

adaptation

A

any change in the characteristics of an organism that makes it better able to survive its environment

190
Q

sunken stomata

A

found in plants in arid environments, help reduce water loss by being recessed into small pits. This placement traps moist air, slows down transpiration, and protects the stomata from wind and heat, allowing the plant to conserve water in dry conditions.

Biology yr 11 (7 decks)

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