cell bitch Flashcards
absorption
the movement of substances from the external environment across the cell membranes into the internal environment of a cell or organism
amino acid
a nitrogen-containing compound that is a building block of proteins
apoptosis
the programmed series of events that leads to cell death as a result of the deconstruction of internal contents of the cell
assimilation
the process through which an organism incorporates nutrients from outside its body into the more complex structures needed in its fluid or solid parts
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
a high-energy compound composed of adenine, ribose and three phosphate groups; it releases energy for cellular reactions when its last phosphate group is removed and it is converted to ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
autotroph
an organism capable of making its own food from inorganic substances using light energy (through photosynthesis) or chemical energy (through chemosynthesis); includes green plants, algae and certain bacteria
Biomacromolecule
a molecule that has an important structural or functional role in cells
Carbohydrate
an organic compound that is a structural component of cells and a major energy source in the diet of animals; includes sugars, starches, celluloses and gums
cell
the basic structural unit of all life forms on Earth
cellular respiration
a series of cellular biochemical reactions and processes that use glucose and oxygen and produce carbon dioxide and water; the energy released is used to convert ADP to ATP
chemosynthesis
the synthesis of organic substances using energy from chemical reactions
chlorophyll
the green pigment found in chloroplasts; it is able to absorb light energy, making it available for photosynthesis
Chloroplast
a membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of plants and algae containing the green pigment chlorophyll; its main function is to be the site of photosynthesis and storage of carbohydrates
Cristae
the folded inner membranes in the matrix of the mitochondria, which provide increased surface area for cellular respiration
Cytoplasm
all the fluid, dissolved materials and organelles between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane
Cytosol
the part of the cytoplasm containing highly organised fluid material with dissolved substances; excludes the organelles
Disaccharide
two linked monosaccharide molecules
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
an information molecule that is the universal basis of all organisms’ genetic material; it contains instructions, written in a chemical code, for the production of proteins by each cell
you can do this queen
oh yeah go queen
Endocytosis
the movement of solids or liquids into a cell from the environment via vesicle formation- the cell membrane extends out to surround the particle and englufls it(food filled vesicle is formed)
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
an organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of an interconnecting system of thin membrane sheets dividing the cytoplasm into compartments and channels; lipid synthesis occurs here
Endosymbiotic theory
the theory suggesting that chloroplasts and mitochondria arose from ancient prokaryote cells that were ingested by other prokaryote host cells
Enzyme
a tertiary structure proteins which catalyze reactions
a specific biological catalyst that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being altered itself by lowering the amount of energy required for the reaction to proceed
Eukaryote
a complex type of cell with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; a member of Domain Eukarya
Exocytosis
The material to be expelled is packaged into a vesicle inside the cell, which then moves towards the cell membrane, and then fuses into the cell membrane, allowing its contents to be released outside the cell
The process allows, large molecules or molecules in bulk to exit the cell 
Golgi apparatus
a collection of membranes that package and store substances into vesicles in preparation for their release from the cell
Glycoprotein
a protein molecule with an attached carbohydrate chain
Heterotroph
an organism that cannot synthesise its own organic compounds from simple inorganic materials; it depends on other organisms for nutrients and energy requirements
Inorganic compounds
small, simple compounds which do not contain both carbon and hydrogen; for example, water and carbon dioxide
Intercellular
occurring between cells
Intracellular
occurring within a cell
Ion
an atom or molecule that has an electrical charge due to losing or gaining electrons; used by cells as reactants for many cellular processes
Lipid
a type of organic molecule that includes fats and oils; insoluble in water
Lysosome
an organelle within the cytoplasm containing digestive enzymes
Magnification
the scaling up of an object’s size; a measure of the degree of enlargement of an observed object, measured by multiples such as 4×, 10×, 40× and 100×
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
a ribonucleic acid formed in the nucleus that has a sequence complementary to DNA; it travels to the cytoplasm where its information is read by ribosomes to determine which amino acids are joined together to form proteins
Metabolism
the sum of all the biochemical reactions in an organism; can be divided into two types, catabolic reactions and anabolic reactions
Microscopy
the technical field of using microscopes to view samples and objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the eye)
Mitochondrion
an organelle within the cytoplasm that is the site of cellular respiration, releasing energy for the cell
Monomer
a small molecule that acts as a building block for macromolecules
Monosaccharide
a simple sugar, such as glucose, which cannot be broken down into smaller sugar molecules
Nucleic acid
a large organic molecule made up of monomers of nucleotides; DNA and RNA are the information-carrying molecules of the cell
Nucleolus
a site for assembling protein and RNA that will later form ribosomes; visible in a non-dividing cell
Nucleotide
an organic compound composed of a sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base; a subunit of DNA and RNA
the basic building block of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA)
Organelle
a structure, most often membrane-enclosed, that is suspended in the cytosol of a cell and that performs a specialist function; only eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles
Organic molecules
large, complex carbon compounds usually derived from a living thing; for example, glucose and starch
Photosynthesis
a metabolic process that converts the Sun’s light energy into stored chemical energy in the bonds of carbohydrates; carbon dioxide and water combine in the presence of light and chlorophyll to produce sugars and oxygen
Plasmid
a small, circular piece of DNA that is found in bacteria and is able to replicate independently of the cell’s main chromosome
Polymer
a large molecule built up from linking smaller molecules together
Polysaccharide
a type of complex carbohydrate that is made up of linked simple sugars
Prokaryote
a simple type of cell that lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; a member of domains Archaea or Bacteria
Protein
a large organic molecule, built up of amino acids, with specific structural and functional roles in living things; includes enzymes
Resolution
the measure of the clarity of the image; can be described as the minimum distance between two distinguishable but separate points
Ribosome
a small structure present in high numbers in all cells that builds amino acids into complex proteins; this organelle is not bound by a membrane
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
the single-stranded nucleic acid that functions in transcribing and translating information from DNA into proteins
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes attached
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)
endoplasmic reticulum with no ribosomes attached
Stem cell
an unspecialised, immature cell capable of giving rise to different kinds of specialised, differentiated cells
Stroma
function?
the jelly-like semi-fluid interior of a chloroplast
contains the chloroplast genetic system and a variety of metabolic enzymes, including those responsible for the critical conversion of CO2 to carbohydrates during photosynthesis.
equivalent in function to the mitochondria
Thylakoid membrane
highly folded membranes found in chloroplasts, specifically in plants and green algae. These membranes contain stacked (grana) and unstacked (stromal) regions and enclose an inner aqueous compartment called the lumen.the interconnected folded membranes within chloroplasts
Triglyceride
a simple lipid formed by linking glycerol with three fatty acids
Unicellular
having a single cell
Vesicle
a small, membrane-bound sac in the cytoplasm that transports, stores or digests substances
food
organic chemicals that provide energy and matter for living things to use.
Radio trophic (type of autotroph)
type of fungi are able to use melanin to capture the energy from radiation to create food.
model
a representation that describes, simplifies, clarifies or provides an explanation of the workings, structure or relationships within an object, system or idea.
diffusion
the net movement of particles from a region of high particle concentration to a region of lower particle concentration.
concentration gradient
The difference in particle concentration between the two regions
what causes difusion
because of the random kinetic movement of the particles, and its effects are seen when a concentration gradient exists until the particles are evenly distributed throughout the system. When that happens, equilibrium is said to be reached. Particles will continue to move randomly, but at equilibrium they move at equal rates in all directions
osmosis
passive process
the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane and down its concentration gradient. Water is the medium in which biochemical processes take place. Water also transports materials in solution, helps keep cells in shape and forms the fluid that bathes tissues. Water is described as the universal solvent.If you add sugar or salt to water, you are adding solute to solvent and making a solution.
dilute solution
relatively high concentration of water molecules compared to solute particles dissolved in it
concentrated solution
low concentration of solvent molecules and a high concentration of solute particles
hypotonic solution
lower solute concentration in extracellular fluid compared with intercellular fluid
water moves into the cell
isotonic solution
same concentration of solutions inside and outside of cells
no net movement of water
hypertonic solution
higher solute concentration in extracellular fluid compared with intarcellular fluid
water moves out of cells
solute particle
the substance that gets dissolved. For example, when you add sugar to water, the sugar is the solute.
solvent particle
the substance that does the dissolving. In the same example, water is the solvent because it dissolves the sugar.
hypotonic solution example(lower solute concentration, water moves into cell)
pure water, plain unsweetened tea, sports drinks low in sugar & salt)
hypertonic solution example(higher solute concentration, water moves out of cell)
sea water, sugar syrup, corn syrup
crenation(osmosis)
red blood cells
red blood cells put in a hypertonic solution. cells shrink and crinkle, formation of abnormal notched surfaces on cells as a result of water loss through osmosis
haemolysis(osmosis)
red blood cells
the breakdown of red blood cells. when red blood cells are placed in a hypotonic solution (less concentrated than the cells’ contents), causing water to flow into the cells via osmosis, which can lead to the cells swelling and bursting.
how full turgor occur(osmosis)
plant cells
cell placed in hypotonic solution(solute concentration lower than cell sap.
water enters vacuole by osmosis, it expands, cytoplasm pushed outwards
active transport energy
Requires the use of energy in the form of ATP. Energy is used to transport substances across the membrane from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration.
how full plasmolysis occur (osmosis)
plant cell
cell placed in hypertonic solution (solute concentration higher than cell sap)
water leaves cell by osmosis, vacuole contracts, cytoplasm moves inwards
active transport transportation
Active transport via a carrier protein in the membrane. Energy(ATP)is transferred to the carrier protein, enabling it to move the particles against a concentration gradient.
when energy provided carrier proteins take up particles on one side of the membrane and release them on the other side, against the concentration gradient
facilitated diffusion
passive process
small, hydrophilic substances (sodium ions, glycerol) move through special integral proteins, channel proteins, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. each type of channel proteins allows only one type of molecule to diffuse
simple diffusion
small hydrophobic molecules (e.g. lipids) or uncharged (carbon dioxide and oxygen gases) molecules move through the membrane unassisted, from an area of high to low concentration
active transport
relatively small hydrophobic or hydrophilic molecules are pumped in or out of the cell by specific membrane proteins, carrier proteins or protein pumps, up(against) the concentration gradient from an area of low to high conentration
Transport of relatively large molecules
Due to the fluidity of the cell membrane, large molecules can be transported Into or out of the cell. The cell membrane can break and reform.This requires energy in the form of ATP. The process of endocytosis allows large molecules or molecules in bulk to enter a cell. The process of exocytosis allows large molecules or molecules in bulk to exit a cell.
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pinocytosis
engulfing of liquid droplets
the cell membrane folds inwards around the fluid and forms a vesicle
type of endocytosis
Factors that affect exchange of materials
Chemical properties of a substance
Uncharged molecules can pass straight through
Charged particles can not pass straight through and required transport proteins
Factors that affect exchange of materials
Physical properties of a substance
Size and shape affect whether or not a substance can pass through
Small molecules can slip past the phospholipids e.g. oxygen
Large molecules require a transport protein or a vesicle
Cells with a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio can…
obtain nutrients and remove wastes more efficiently.
almost 99% of the mass of an average human body is made up of only six elements:
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus.
dynamic environments,
fresh water ponds, where conditions may change quickly.
unicellular organisms tend to live there
Transmembrane proteins
proteins that extend across the entire membrane, past the hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. They function as transport proteins
peripheral proteins
formed from amino acids they use for attachment to the cell membrane. The amino acid chains are hydrophilic, meaning that they are water-loving and do not mix with lipids or fats. This is the reason why they are not found within the cell membrane.
Unlike integral membrane proteins, peripheral proteins do not enter into the hydrophobic space within the cell membrane.
support, communication, enzymes, and molecule transfer in the cell.
what maintains a low concentration of oxygen in the cytoplasm
Oxygen always tends to diffuse into cells because cells use oxygen in cellular respiration
particles that cant pass through the phospholipid bilayer easily
Charged particles (such as sodium and chloride ions) and relatively large molecules (such as glucose and amino acids)
water
the medium in which biochemical processes take place. Water also transports materials in solution, helps keep cells in shape and forms the fluid that bathes tissues. Water is described as the universal solvent. If you add sugar or salt to water, you are adding solute to solvent and making a solution
solution(mixture of particles)
solvent particles + solute particles
selectively permeable
Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that water molecules pass through them easily but solutes do not. If the concentration of water molecules inside a cell is lower than the concentration outside, water will diffuse into the cell until a balance or equilibrium is reached (where the net overall movement is zero).
contractile vacuoles
fresh Water(hypertonic solution) moving into animal cells by osmosis can cause the fluid cell membrane to swell and eventually burst, killing the organism.
Unicellular organisms such as amoebae that live in fresh water have important regulatory mechanisms to combat these problems. They are able to remove excess water by forming little pools of water in organelles called contractile vacuoles in the cytoplasm. When these vacuoles stretch to a certain point, they contract and expel the water.
how multicellular animals function efficiently because of extracellular fluid
In multicellular animals, cells are bathed in isotonic extracellular fluid. This means that cells can function efficiently because water diffuses equally in both directions, resulting in no net movement of water into or out of cells. To keep the internal environment of your body in isotonic balance, the solute concentration in the extracellular fluid is controlled by the concentration of solutes in blood plasma, which in turn is controlled by the kidneys.
Adhesion protein
a membrane protein that helps link cells together
Aquaporinswater
channels that are intrinsic membrane proteins and that selectively allow water or other small uncharged molecules to pass along the concentration gradient
Active transport
the process whereby cells actively transport substances across a membrane from a low concentration to higher concentration of the substance; characterised by the fact that the process consumes energy
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
a high-energy compound composed of adenine and ribose with three phosphate groups attached; it stores a usable form of energy; it releases energy for cellular reactions when its last phosphate group is removed and it is converted to ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
Free energy obtained from respiration can also be used to add a phosphate group to ADP, converting it to ATP. The ATP–ADP cycle is the cell’s way of shuttling energy between reactions
ATP ⇌ADP + P + energy
Bilayera
double layer
Carrier protein
a protein within membranes that assists other molecules to cross the membrane; in facilitated and active transport, carrier proteins have to change shape to pass a molecule across the membrane; with the use of energy in the form of ATP, they can transport specific small molecules or ions against their concentration gradients
Cell membrane (plasma membrane)
the selectively permeable boundary of all living cells that maintains the contents of the cell and regulates movement of substances in and out of the cell
Channel protein
a protein that forms channels within membranes to allow the passive passage of hydrophobic substances across the membrane; they catalyse movement of specific ions (or water) down their electrochemical gradient via passive transport, a process called facilitated diffusion
Cholesterol
a type of lipid embedded in cell membranes that provides stability and allows fluidity
Concentration gradient
the difference in concentration of a substance between two different regions
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Cytoplasm
all the fluid, dissolved materials and organelles between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane
Cytosol
the fluid part of the cytoplasm, containing highly organised fluid material with dissolved substances; excludes the organelles
Diffusion
the passive movement of particles from a high to a low concentration of that substance
Endocytosis
the movement of solids or liquids into a cell from the environment via vesicle formation
Enzyme
a biological catalyst that speeds up biological reactions without undergoing any change itself; most enzymes are proteins; all enzymes are macromolecules
Equilibrium
the state reached when two solutions have the same concentration of solutes and the net movement is zero across a selectively permeable membrane
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External environment
the environment surrounding a cell, outside the cell membrane
Extracellular fluid
the fluid that bathes the outside of cells in multicellular organisms
Facilitated diffusion
a form of diffusion that requires a substance to be attached to a specific carrier molecule to move across a membrane
Flaccid
floppy; describes the condition of a plant cell that has lost water
Fluid mosaic model
a model whichdescribes membranes as a double layer of lipids, a lipid bilayer, with the ability to flow and change shape, like a two-dimensional fluid; specialised protein molecules are embedded in the lipid in various patterns, like a mosaic
Hydrophilic
describes a substance that tends to interact with and dissolve in water
Hydrophobic
describes a substance that avoids association with water
Hypertonic
describes a solution with a higher solute concentration compared with another solution
Hypotonic
describes a solution with a lower solute concentration compared with another solution
Internal environment
(of a cell) all material contained within the cell membrane
Ion
an atom or molecule that has an electrical charge due to losing or gaining electrons; used by cells as reactants for many cellular processes
Isotonic
describes a solution with an equal solute concentration to another fluid
Net change
the amount of change after considering the movement of particles across a membrane in both directions; the result after subtracting movement in one direction from movement in the other is the net change
Osmosis
the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from regions of low solute concentration to high solute concentration
Particle theory
(also known as the kinetic theory of matter) the theory stating that matter consists of tiny particles in constant motion; the motion of particles increases when they have higher energy
Passive process
a process that take place without any input of energy
Passive transport
the movement of molecules, across a membrane, that does not require the input of energy
Permeable
describes a membrane through which substances can pass
Phagocytosis
the cell menerane extends around a large particle forming a vesicle around the solid substance
type of endocytosis
fart
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Plasmolysis
the cytoplasm pulling away from the cell wall because of water loss from the cell
Receptor protein
a protein in a cell membrane that binds hormones and other signal molecules
Recognition protein
a protein that acts as a marker on membranes
Selectively permeable
describes a membrane that allows some substances but not others to pass across it
Sodium–potassium pump
a membrane protein that uses energy to transport sodium ions out of, and potassium ions into, cells, against their concentration gradients
Solutea
substance that can be dissolved in another substance
Solution
a mixture of solute and solvent
Solvent
a substance in which another substance can be dissolved to create a solution
Surface-area-to-volume (SA : volume) ratio
the mathematical ratio of the size of the surface area (in two dimensions) compared to the volume of an object (in three dimensions
Tissue
a group of specialised cells working together to perform a specific function
Transport protein
a protein that carries molecules across membranes
Turgid
describes a cell that is tight and rigid from absorbing water
Wilt
to become limp and floppy
difference between cell mebrane and nuclear membrane
The cell membrane is the outer boundary of the entire cell, controlling what enters and exits the cell. The nuclear membrane, also known as the nuclear envelope, specifically surrounds the nucleus within the cell, protecting the genetic material (DNA) and regulating the movement of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
phagocytes
Cells that engulf material by the process of phagocytosis (endocytosis)
examples of active transport
absorption of glucose into the cells lining the small intestine
the secretion of harmful or nonessential substances by the cells that make up the kidneys
Substances that are secreted from cells
extracellular enzymes, hormones, extracellular products (such as mucus and waxes), milk proteins and antibodies.
chemical properties of a substance
factor affecting movement of molecules
- Solubility: If a substance is soluble in water, it may easily move through the extracellular fluid and be transported across the cell membrane by various mechanisms, such as diffusion or facilitated transport.
- Charge: The charge of a molecule can affect its transport. Charged molecules may require specific transport proteins to help them cross the hydrophobic lipid bilayer of the cell membrane.
- Size and Structure: Larger molecules may not easily pass through the cell membrane and might need to be transported via endocytosis or other active transport methods.
- Polarity: Polar molecules may struggle to cross the nonpolar lipid bilayer of cell membranes without assistance, while nonpolar molecules may pass through more easily..
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The physical properties
factor affecting movement of molecules
of size and shape affect whether or not a substance moves across the cell membrane, how it is transported and how quickly it moves.
distance
factor affecting movement of molecules
The greater the distance that a substance must travel, the slower the rate of diffusion. This places an upper limitation on cell size.
factor affecting movement of molecules
factors controlling biochemical processes
presence of specific enzymes
the nature and arrangement of internal membranes- mitochondria increases surface area by folding and stacking internal membranes
enzymes
-biological catalyst
-usually an organic protein
-speeds up chemical reactions in cells
-lowers the activation energy
-unchanged and reusable
-each is specific to one type of reaction
-increase reaction rate without altering the chemical equilibrium between products and reactants
-increase rate of chemical reactions without themselves being consumed or permanently altered by the reaction
-without them metabolic reactions would be too slow for survival
Activation energy
the minimum amount of initial energy required to start a chemical reaction
-supplied in the form of heat energy (thermal energy) that the reactant molecules absorb from their surroundings.
-Enzymes catalyse reactions in cells by lowering the activation energy required.
-They do not provide energy; instead, they weaken bonds within reactants to speed up the reaction.
-Enzymes are able to destabilise existing chemical bonds in reactants
Catabolic reactions
the reactions in living things that involve the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones and usually release energy from breaking bonds
-Uses exergonic reactions bc they release energy when breaking down molecules
-Larger, more complex molecules break down to form smaller simple molecules
-Smaller, simple molecules build up to form more complex molecules
-Reactants have more stored energy than products
-Products have more stored energy than reactants
-energy is stored in the bonds of a molecule
Induced-fit model of enzyme action
The bonds that form between an enzyme and its substrate are thought to slightly modify the shape of the enzyme so that the substrate can be accommodated by the enzyme.
enzymes active side is slightly changed to mold around the substrate when the enzyme substrate complex occurs due to the enzyme molding around the substrate it puts strain on the bones and therefore low, the activation energy product removed en return to original shape
NADH and FADH2
are other energy-carrying molecules. NADH and FADH2function as coenzymes during cellular respiration.
How NADH and FADH2 work together
NADH and FADH2 molecules transport energy electrons, from one section of a mitochondrion to another during the process of aerobic respiration.
Photosynthesis
a biochemical process, in producers, that uses light energy and the raw materials,carbon dioxide and water, to synthesise organic compounds
Photosynthesis requires light as an energy source, and this is captured by the pigment chlorophyll found in the organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have an outer and an inner membrane. Thestroma is enclosed by the inner membrane. This is a gel-like matrix rich in enzymes. Suspended in the stroma is a membrane system, the thylakoid membranes. These are flat, sac-like structures that arecalled grana (singular granum) when grouped together into stacks.
photosynthesis equation
6CO2 + 12H2O + light & chlorophyll→ C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
light dependant stage photosynthesis
site in chloroplast-thylakoids/gana (stacks)
energy conversion- light energy to produce ATP from ADP and NADPH to NADP
Reactants- Water
Products- oxygen and hydrogen
other name- light reaction
Occurs in the chloroplast
*Occurs in the thylakoid membranes
*Light energy is absorbed by different pigments within the thylakoid membranes. *These pigments include chlorophyl (green).
*Chlorophylls absorb the wavelengths of blue and red light, and they reflect the green wavelengths.
*When a chlorophyll molecule in the thylakoid membrane absorbs light energy, electrons within the molecule become energised.
*The energy is used to split water molecules (H2O) into hydrogen ions (H+) and oxygen gas (O2).
*ATP molecules are formed in this stage.
light independant stage photosynthesis
site in chloroplast- Stroma (fluid)
energy conversion- ATP and NADPH (hydrogen/electrons) carry energy to light independent reactions. ATP turns back to ADP + P and NADPH turns back to NADP
Reactants- co2 and hydrogen
Products- glucose, complex organic compunds, carbs
other names- calvin cycle
*In this reaction glucose molecules are produced from carbon dioxide.
*This reaction requires a supply of carbon dioxide gas, hydrogen ions and chemical energy in the form of ATP.
Hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide molecules are joined to make glucose and excess water
.ATP provide the chemical energy for the conversion of carbon dioxide to glucose molecules.
ellular respiration equation
C6H12O6 6O2 → 6CO2 6H2O + energy (ATP)
Cellular respiration
step one
Glycolysis (spiltting of glucose )
One molecule of glucose (6-carbon compound) is broken down into two 3-C molecules. Energy is invested initially to the value of 2 ATP. The process gives a net gain of 2 ATP.During the process, 2 NADare given 2 H atoms (and 2 electrons) to form 2 NADH.
Cellular respiration
step two
Citric acid cycle(production of energy-carrying molecules NADH, FADH2, ATP)
In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria then, after a series of reactions, enter the citric acid cycle in the matrix. The carbon molecule enters a cycle of biochemical reactions. For each pyruvate molecule, the citric acid cycle produces 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 and releases 2 CO2. For each glucose molecule, the total yield from the citric acid cycle is 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2.The energy carried in the NADH and FADH2 molecules will lead to the further production of ATP via the electron transfer chain in aerobic respiration.
Cellular respiration
step three
Electron transport chain (electrons and oxygen arrive at cristae to help ADP convert to ATP)
Electrons are transported by the energy-carrying molecules NADH and FADH2 from the citric acid cycle.The energy produces a chemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane.Oxidative phosphorylation occurs as ATP is generated from ADP + P. Oxygen and hydrogen ions combine to form water.Approximately 28 ATP are released (depending on whether NADH or FADH2 was shuttled into the mitochondria from the cytosol)
total ATP produced= 38
GRANA
The stack of thylakoid membranes in a chloroplast that contain chlorophyll
THYLAKOID MEMBRANES
The interconnected , folded membranes within chloroplasts
carry out the light reactions of photosynthesis. They are arranged into stacked and unstacked regions called grana and stroma thylakoids, respectively, that are differentially enriched in photosystem I and II complexes.
Photosynthesis
chloroplast
step one
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis.
*The stroma is a gel like matrix rich in enzymes, enclosed by the inner membrane.
*Suspended in the stroma is the thylakoid membranes.
*These are flat, sac-like structures that are called grana when grouped together into stacks.
reactants
he starting materials in a biochemical reaction that are transformed into products. They require an input of energy, known as activation energy, to initiate the reaction. Unlike enzymes, reactants are consumed during the reaction, forming new chemical bonds and resulting in different molecules as the final products.
active site
ach enzyme has a precise region on its surface to which the substrate can become attached.
specific and unique and shaped due to the specific folder and bonding in the tertiary structure of the protein
due to the specific active site enzymes can only attach to substrates that are complementary in shape
enzyme substrate complex
when an enzyme-controlled reaction takes place, the enzyme and substrate molecules become joined together for a short time
Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis
Abiotic factor such as light intensity, carbon dioxide, availability, and temperature
Cellular respiration
biochemical process that occurs in different location in the side of mitochondria and metabolizes, organic compounds glucose, aerobically and anaerobically to release usable energy in the form of ATP
Cellular respiration
biochemical process that occurs in different location in the side of mitochondria and metabolizes, organic compounds glucose, aerobically and anaerobically to release usable energy in the form of ATP
Specialisation
(of cells) refers to the possession of specific features that relate to a specific role or function
translocation
organic compounds, such as sugars (produced during photosynthesis), are transported from where they are made (source) to where they are needed or stored (sink)
adaptation
any change in the characteristics of an organism that makes it better able to survive its environment
sunken stomata
found in plants in arid environments, help reduce water loss by being recessed into small pits. This placement traps moist air, slows down transpiration, and protects the stomata from wind and heat, allowing the plant to conserve water in dry conditions.
