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Bsc Adult Nursing > Cell biology & homeostasis > Flashcards

Cell biology & homeostasis Flashcards

1
Q

Define Cytology

A

Study of individual cells and their structure.

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2
Q

Define Histology

A

Study of the microscopic structure of tissues.

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3
Q

Define anatomy

A

Study of the body’s structure and how its parts relate.

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4
Q

Define physiology

A

Study of the body’s structure and how its parts relate.

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5
Q

Define Pathology

A

Study of diseases and abnormalities in body structure and function.

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6
Q

Define pathophysiology

A

Study of how diseases affect body functions.

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7
Q

What does “patho-“ mean

A

Relating to disease

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8
Q

What is the anatomical position

A

when the body is facing forwards with feet together flat on the floor, and arms hanging by the sides with the palms facing forwards

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9
Q

In anatomical direction terms, what does the term “superior (cranial) ” mean

A

Toward the head or upper part of a structure.
Example: The head is superior to the chest.

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10
Q

In anatomical direction terms, what does the term “inferior (caudal)” mean

A

Toward the lower part of a structure, away from the head.
Example: The stomach is inferior to the lungs.

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11
Q

In anatomical direction terms, what does the term “anterior (ventral)” mean

A

Toward the front of the body or structure.

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12
Q

In anatomical direction terms, what does the term “medial” mean

A

Toward the midline of the body.
Example: The nose is medial to the eyes.

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13
Q

what are the imaginary planes?

A

median/midsagittal, frontal and transverse

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14
Q

what is the frontal plane

A

The frontal plane, or coronal plane, is a vertical line that divides the body into front and back parts. It helps describe body positions and movements.

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15
Q

what is median plane

A

The median plane is an imaginary line that splits the body into equal left and right halves. It runs straight down the middle, from head to toe.

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16
Q

what is transverse plane

A

The transverse plane is a horizontal line that divides the body into top and bottom halves.

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17
Q

What is the structural and functional feature of the nucleus

A

The nucleus is the cell’s “brain” because it holds DNA, which controls the cell. DNA is made of four bases: A, T, C, and G. Groups of three bases, called codons, code for amino acids, which link together to make proteins. A gene is a set of codons with the instructions to make a protein.

When a protein is needed, a copy of the gene (mRNA) is made. The mRNA leaves the nucleus, and ribosomes in the cytosol read it to make the protein.

Mention transcription and translation

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18
Q

What is the function and structure of SER

A

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER) is part of the rough ER but doesn’t have ribosomes, so it doesn’t make proteins. Its main jobs are:

  • Making fats for cell membranes.
  • Producing steroid hormones like estrogen and androgens.
  • Storing glucose and fats.
  • Detoxifying drugs and toxins.
  • Storing and releasing calcium in muscle cells for contractions.
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19
Q

What is the function and structure of cell membrane

A

The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the outer boundary of the cell and its internal organelles. It is made of a phospholipid bilayer, where phospholipids are arranged in two layers. The heads of these molecules face outward toward the watery environments inside and outside the cell, while the tails face inward, away from water.

This structure makes the membrane semi-permeable, meaning it controls what can enter and exit the cell. Small, lipid-soluble molecules can pass through easily, but larger or water-soluble substances cannot because they are blocked by the hydrophobic tails. Instead, protein channels and carriers help regulate the movement of these substances through the membrane.

20
Q

What is the function and structure of RER

A

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) is a large network of membranes around the nucleus and connected to the nuclear envelope. It is more developed in cells that produce a lot of secretions. The surface of the rER has ribosomes, which give it a rough look, and these ribosomes help translate mRNA from the nucleus to create polypeptide chains, which are the building blocks of proteins.

These polypeptide chains enter the rER to be folded into their proper shapes, similar to assembling flat-pack furniture. During this folding process, enzymes in the rER add carbohydrates and phospholipids to the proteins, serving as identity markers. The finished proteins are then packaged into vesicles that bud off from the rER and are sent to the Golgi apparatus for further processing.

21
Q

What is the function and structure of the golgi apparatus

A

The Golgi apparatus is a flat network of membranes located between the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and the cell membrane, serving as a packaging center for proteins. New proteins are sent from the rER in vesicles that fuse with the Golgi apparatus to release their contents. Inside, enzymes modify the proteins as they move through, packaging them into vesicles based on their specific functions.

These packaged vesicles can be:

  1. Secretory vesicles: They fuse with the cell membrane to release proteins outside the cell (a process called exocytosis).
  2. Membrane vesicles: They merge with the cell membrane to add new lipids and proteins, which can change how the cell responds to its environment.
  3. Lysosomes: These vesicles contain digestive enzymes that stay in the cytosol. They break down old, damaged, or toxic materials within the cell in a protective environment.
22
Q

what is the function and structure of cytoplasm

A

The cytoplasm is the fluid-filled area between the cell membrane and the nuclear envelope. It has two main parts: cytosol and organelles.

  • Cytosol, also called intracellular fluid, is where many important chemical reactions happen that provide energy, support growth, repair, and reproduction. It contains enzymes that help these reactions, along with nutrients, ions, and waste products.
  • Organelles are specialized structures within the cell that perform specific functions. They are divided into two types:
    • Membranous organelles have phospholipid membranes that keep their reactions separate from the cytosol. Examples include the nucleus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and lysosomes.
    • Non-membranous organelles are in direct contact with the cytosol and include ribosomes, proteasomes, centrioles, and cytoskeleton proteins.
23
Q

What is the structure and function of centrioles

A

Centrioles are paired structures made of protein rods called microtubules arranged in a cylinder. They are located near the nucleus and help organize the cytoskeleton, especially during cell division (mitosis). During mitosis, centrioles create a network of spindle fibers that guide DNA into the two new cells.

24
Q

what is the structure and function of ATP

A

Mitochondria are called the “powerhouse” of the cell because they produce energy. Their inner membrane is highly folded to increase surface area and is covered in enzymes that help with aerobic cellular respiration. This process uses glucose and oxygen to create energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and produces carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.

The formula is:

Glucose + Oxygen = ATP + Carbon Dioxide + Water

ATP consists of an adenine molecule and three phosphate groups. Energy is stored in the bonds between these phosphate groups and is released when the bonds are broken.

25
Q

What is the structure and function of protesomes

A

Proteasomes are small, barrel-shaped organelles lined with protease enzymes. They are found in the cytosol and nucleus, where they break down and dispose of old, damaged, or faulty proteins made by free ribosomes.

Proteasomes are similar to lysosomes, which degrade proteins made by fixed ribosomes in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and contained in membrane-bound vesicles.

26
Q

What is the structure and function of ribosomes

A

Ribosomes are protein structures made of two subunits, a small one and a large one, that come together with mRNA. They read the mRNA sequence and use it to arrange amino acids in the right order to form a polypeptide chain, a process called translation.

Polypeptide chains made by free ribosomes are used as proteins within the cytosol of the cell, while those attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) produce proteins that are modified and packaged for use in organelles, the plasma membrane, or for export from the cell.

27
Q

What is the structure and function of cytoskeleton

A

Different structural proteins, including microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, make up the cytoskeleton, which acts as a scaffold in the cytoplasm. Cytoskeleton proteins give the cell strength and support and help organize and anchor organelles in their proper positions.

28
Q

What is the structure and function of microvilli and cilia

A

In some cell types, the plasma membrane has finger-like projections supported by the cytoskeleton.

  • Microvilli are small projections that increase the surface area for secretion or absorption.
  • Cilia are longer, moving projections that beat in a rhythmic way to help move substances along the cell’s surface, such as mucus in the respiratory tract or eggs and sperm in the reproductive tracts.
29
Q

What are the levels of organisation

A
30
Q

What affects the process of homeostasis

A

injury, infection, genetic abnormalities and ageing can overcome these processes

31
Q

How does the human body maintain itself in a stable state

A

homeostasis

32
Q

What is the function of homeostasis

A

Homoeostatic mechanisms keep variables in the body at the right levels, within their normal ranges, ensuring cells survive and thrive. Homoeostasis is the physiological process that maintains the internal environment in a stable, normal state. Homoeostasis uses chemical and biological processes for self-maintenance

33
Q

Examples of negative and positive feedback

A

positive: blood clotting
negative: regulating heat

34
Q

what are all the normal vital signs in adults

A
35
Q

What are the 4 categories of body tissues

A

epithelial, connective , nervous and muscle

36
Q

What is a catabolic reaction

A

breaks food down to release building subunits, some energy and heat.

37
Q

what is a anabolic reaction

A

synthesis of subunits into new macromolecules and ATP.

38
Q

What factors affect metabolic rate

A

Metabolic rate increased according to: gender, body mass index, pregnancy, menstruation, lactation, digestion of food, muscle activity, fever, excess thyroid hormones, emotional stress, and decreases with: age and starvation.

39
Q

What are the stages of aerobic respiration

A

Glycolysis
krebs cycle
oxidative phosphorylation

40
Q
A
41
Q
A
42
Q

Difference between hypertonic and hypotonic

A

Hypertonic fluids increase the solute concentration in the
extracellular space. This causes water to move out of cells to
dilute the extracellular fluid and restore the correct

Hypotonic fluids decrease the solute concentration in the
extracellular space (make it more diluted). This causes water
to move into cells to increase the concentration of
extracellular fluid.

43
Q

what’s the difference between primary and secondary active transport?

A

Primary active transport pumps move ions and
molecules against their concentration gradients.
• This process requires ATP.

Secondary active transport pumps use the
energy of ions moving down their concentration
to move other molecules against their
concentration gradients.
• This process uses ATP indirectly

44
Q

What is apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

45
Q

what is cell senescence.

A

Biological processes of ageing which affects the function of cell organelles and their ability to maintain homeostasis

46
Q

What are the major ageing mechanisms

A

telomere lengths shorten with each cell division, until they can no longer divide

oxidative stress,cellular respiration produces highly reactive free radicals called reactive oxygen species (ROS) damage DNA and organelles, they accumulate while cell’s oxygen capacity reduces overtime

Bsc Adult Nursing (4 decks)

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