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cell biology Flashcards

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1
Q

what can organisms be?

A

they can either be prokaryotes or eukaryotes

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2
Q

prokaryotes and eukaryotes

which one is simple and which one is complex?

A

eukaryotic cells are complex and include;
- animal
- plant
- fungi
- protoctists

prokaryotes are simple and small
- bacteria

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3
Q

eukaryotes are organism made up of..

A

eukaryotes are organisms made up of eukaryotic cells.

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4
Q

prokaryotes is a

A

prokaryotes is a prokaryotic cell
(single celled organism )

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5
Q

what are animal cells made up of?
(5 things)

A
  • nucleus
  • mitochondria
  • Ribosomes
    -cytoplasm
  • cell membrane
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6
Q

what are plant cells made up of?
(8 things)

A
  • cell wall of cellulose
  • nucleus
  • mitochondria
    -cytoplasm
    -cell membrane
    -vacuole
  • ribosomes
  • chloroplasts
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7
Q

what does the nucleus do?

A

the nucleus encloses genetic material

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8
Q

what does the cytoplasm do?

A
  • cheimcal reactions take place
  • watery sollution
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9
Q

what doe sthe cell memebrane do

A
  • controls the molecules that can leave and enter the cell.
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10
Q

What is the role of the mitochondria?

A

Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration, so they release energy for the cell.

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11
Q

what does the ribosomes do

A
  • sites of protein synthesis
  • you need electron microscope to see
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12
Q

what does the chloroplasts do?

A
  • they perform photosynthesis
  • filled with chlorophyll
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13
Q

what does the cell wall do?

A
  • strengthens the cell
  • made from cellulose
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14
Q

what does a permanent vacuole contain and what does it do?

A
  • contains cell sap
  • helps give plant cells its shape
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15
Q

do plant cells or animal cells have a regular shape?

A
  • plant cells have a regular shape
  • animal cells can change their shape
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16
Q

what do bacteria have instead of a ‘true’ nucleus

A
  • a single strand of DNA that floats freely in the cytoplasm
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17
Q

what are plasmids?

A

plasmids are rings of DNA

they are in bacteria cells and they usually have one or more

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18
Q

what are bacteria cells made up of?
(5 things)

A
  • cell wall
  • cell membrane
    -plasmids
  • circular strand of DNA
    -cytoplasm
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19
Q

what does bacteria live?
(3 things)

A
  • skin
    -body
  • every day objects in our environment
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20
Q

what do plasmids do?

A

they provide provide bacteria with genetic advatages such as antibiotic resistance

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21
Q

what does circular strands of DNA do?

A
  • they hold all genes for that bacterium
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22
Q

what do microscopes allow us to do?

A

microscopes allow humans to see things that we cant see through the naked eye.

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23
Q

what do light microscopes allow us to see?

A

light microscopes allow us t see individual and large subcellular structures like nuclei.

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24
Q

what do electron microscopes allow us to do?

A

electron microscopes allow us to see smaller things in more detail like:

  • mitochondria
  • chloroplasts
  • ribosomes
  • plasmids
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25
Q

give one advantage of using a electron microscope over a light microscope

A
  • higher resolution
  • higher magnification
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26
Q

what is the formula for magnification?

A

magnification = image size/ real size

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27
Q

which of the following subcellular structures would you not expect to find in prokaryotic cell? choose one.

  • plasmid
  • nucleus
  • cell wall
  • cell membrane
A
  • nucleus
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28
Q

give two differences in structure between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

A
  • prokaryotic cells dont have a nucelus
  • prokaryotic cells dont have a mitochondria
  • eukaryotic cells dont have plasmids
  • eukaryotic cells dont have a single circular strand of DNA
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29
Q

what is differentiation?

A

differentiation is the process by which a cell changes to become specialised for its job.

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30
Q

is the ability to differentiate lost at an early stage in plant cells or animal cells?

A

animal cells

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31
Q

how does differentiation happen?

A

as the cells change they develop different subcelluar structure and turns them into different types of cells which allows them to carry out specific functions.

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32
Q

what are five examples of specialised cells ?

A
  • sperm
  • nerve
  • root hair
  • muscle
  • phloem and xylem
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33
Q

what is the function of a sperm cell and what is it specialisations?

A

function is for reproduction

  • long tail and streamlined head for swimming
  • lots of mitochondria for energy
  • carry enzymes to digest through egg cell membrane
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34
Q

what is the function of a nerve cell and what is its specialisations?

A

function is for rapid signalling

  • long to cover distance
  • branched connections and the ends to connect to other nerve cells to create a network through the body.
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35
Q

what is the function of a muscle cell and what is its specialisations?

A

function is for quick contracting

  • long so there is space to contract
  • lots of mitochondria for energy to contract.
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36
Q

what is the function of a a root hair cell and what is its specialisations?

A

the function of root hair cells is absorbing water and minerals

  • on the surface of plant roots
  • gives the plant more surface areas so more minerals and water can be absorbed from soil
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37
Q

what s the function of phloem and xylem cells and what is its specialisations

A

the function of phloem and xylem is that they transport substances.

  • transport substances like food and water around the plant
  • to form tubes they are long and joined end to end
  • xylem are hollow
  • phloem have little subcellur structure so stuff can flow through.
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38
Q

what is a stem cells?

A

stem cells are differentiated cells

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39
Q

what can embryonic stem cells do?

A

they can differentiate into any type of cell ( all the cells a human needs)
- divide by mitosis

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40
Q

what can adult stem cells do?

A
  • they can divide by mitosis
  • they can only differentiate into different types of blood cells including:
  • white
  • red
  • platelets
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41
Q

what can adult stem cells not do?

A

adult stem cells can replace damaged cells but they cant form new tissues like embryonic cells.

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42
Q

where can adult stem cells be found?

A

bone marrow - jelly like substance found in larger bones

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43
Q

What do we call the plant tissues that are continually growing and that contain stem cells?

A

meristems

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44
Q

where can meristems be found?

A

in areas of the plant that are continuously growing
(the tips of the roots and shoots)

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45
Q

what are 3 examples of cells that stem cells can differentiate in a plant?

A
  • palisade cells (photosynthesis)
  • phloem and xylem
  • root hair cells
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46
Q

do plant stem cells exist for the plants entire life or do they disappear by the time the plant is fully developed?

A

plant stem cells stay for the plants entire life

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47
Q

name two different types of stem cells found in animals?

A
  • embryonic stem cells
  • adult stem cells
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48
Q

when a sperm cell ________ an egg they form a single cell called a ______

A
  1. fertilises
  2. zygote
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49
Q

are bacterial cells larger or smaller than animal cells

A

smaller

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50
Q

what are cells?

A

they are the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently

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51
Q

are animal and plant cells multicellular or are bacteria cells multicellular

A

animal and plant cells are multicellular

  • bacteria are unicellular
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52
Q

what does unicellular mean?

A

each cell is its own organism

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53
Q

what are the five kingdoms of life?

A
  • animals
  • plants
  • bacteria
  • protoctists
  • fungi
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54
Q

what are viruses not apart of the kingdoms of life?

A

they are not apart of the kingdom of life as they are not living organisms

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55
Q

which ones of these are multi cellular?

  • animals
  • plants
  • fungi
  • protoctists
  • bacteria
A
  • animals
  • plants
  • fungi (some are multicellular some are unicellular)
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56
Q

what are hetrotrophs

A

means that that organisms has to get energy from another organism

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57
Q

what are autrophs

A

an organism that can create energy from light,water,carbon dioxide
like plants when they get their energy from the sun.

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58
Q

are fungi hetrophs, autrophs or saprotrophs

A

fungi are hetroophs and saprotrophs

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58
Q

what is a saprotroph

A

saprotrophs are organisms that obtain their nutrients or engery through decaying or dead organic matter

(saprophytic nutrition)

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59
Q

what is saprophytic nutrition?

A
  1. organism secrets enzymes onto food outside its body
  2. wait fro enzymes to break down the food
  3. absorb nutrients back into the body
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60
Q

why can some fungi be considered as a pathogen

A

because theres a fungus that causes athletes foot

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61
Q

do protoctists have soemthing to do with humans?

A

most protoctists have nothing to do with humans however some can be considered pathogens. for example the species plasmodium can cause malaria.

62
Q

are protoctists hetrotrophs autotrophs or saprotrophs?

A

hetrotrophs + autorophs

63
Q

are animals hetrotrophs autotrophs or saprotrophs?

A

hetrotrophs

64
Q

are plants hetrotrophs autotrophs or saprotrophs?

A

autotrophs

65
Q

are plants hetrotrophs autotrophs or saprotrophs?

A

most are hetrotrophs but some can phtosythesis so they can be considered autotrophs.

66
Q

what is the basic structure of a virus?

A
  • protein coat - outside
  • genetic material - inside
67
Q

where can viruses reproduce?

A
  • only reproduce inside living cells
  • uses those cells to replicate
68
Q

Which of the following are features of animals?

  • reproduce sexually
  • autotrophs
  • unicellular
  • reproduce asexually
  • multi cellular
  • hetrotrops
A
  • reproduce sexually
  • multi cellular
  • hetrotrops
69
Q

Which of the following are features of plants?

  • autotrophs
  • unicellular
  • multicellular
  • hetrotrophs
  • sapotrophs
A
  • autotrophs
  • multicellular
70
Q

Fungi can be unicellular or multicellular.

Is yeast unicellular or multicellular?

A

unicellular

71
Q

Some fungi (for example mushrooms) have a body known as a mycelium, which is made up of loads of tiny thread like structures called _____

A

hyphae

72
Q

What does the term ‘parasite’ mean?

A

An organism that depends on another organism to grow and reproduce

73
Q

Which two of the following cells are adapted to their roles by having a large surface area?

  • red blood cells
  • nerve cells
  • root hair cells
  • xylem cells
A
  • red blood cells
  • root hair cells
74
Q

what does multicellular mean?

A

an organism composed of many cells

75
Q

Heart muscle tissue has to be able to beat continually without stopping. What adaptation would you expect heart cells to have?

A

A large number of mitochondria

76
Q

multi cellular,eukaryotic cells require a ______ supply of new _______

A

multi cellular,eukaryotic cells require a continuous supply of new cells

77
Q

chromosomes contain a large number of____

A

chromosomes contain a large number of genes

78
Q

how many pairs of chromosomes does a human usually have?

A

23 pairs

79
Q

body cells contain ___ of each ______
in other words they are ______

A

body cells contain two of each chromosomes
in other words they are paired

80
Q

What do we commonly call the cells produced by mitosis?

A

daughter cells

81
Q

When a cell divides by mitosis, how many cells are produced?

A

2

82
Q

Are the cells created by mitosis genetically identical to each other, or genetically different?

A

genetically identical

83
Q

Multicellular organisms, like ourselves, require a continuous supply of new cells.

What are the four reasons why new cells are required?
give examples of each of them

A
  • asexual reproduction - to replicate copies of parent cells
  • growth - more cells as we grow
  • repair- replace the cells that we loose each day
  • development - new cell types as tissues develop
84
Q

what is an example of a cell that we need to replace by mitosis?

A

skin cells - they constantly fall of our bodies each day.’

85
Q

what are chromosomes made of?

A

DNA

86
Q

what ar eteh stages of teh cell cycle

A

1) the DNA replicates to form two copies of each chromosome. - the cell also grows and copies internal structures like mitochondria and chromosomes

2) mitosis takes place

3) cytoplasm and the cell membrane divides to form two identical cells

87
Q

what is mitosis?

A

the process in which a single cell turns into two identical daughter cells

88
Q

what is the stages of mitosis?

A

one set of chromosomes ares pulled to each end of the cell and the nucleus divides

the cytoplasm and cell membrane divides to create two identical cells

89
Q

what is the cell membrane?

A

the cell membrane is a protective barrier outside the cell

90
Q

what is the cytoplasm

A

a jelly like substance that fills the cell

91
Q

what is chlorophyll

A

a green pigment within chloroplasts that absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis.

it is chlorophyll that makes plants green

92
Q

Which type of stem cell can only differentiate into different types of blood cells?

A

adult stem cells

93
Q

What is the problem in type 1 diabetes?

A

The pancreas is damaged and no longer produces insulin

94
Q

When nerve cells are damaged, messages can no longer be sent to the muscles properly. This can lead to the loss of the ability to move some or all of your body

What do we call this condition?

A

paralysis

95
Q

Extract ________ stem cells from early embryos.
Grow them in a ____________
Stimulate them to ___________ into whichever type of ____________ cell that we want.
Give them to the patient to ________ their faulty cells.

A

Extract embryonic stem cells from early embryos.
Grow them in a laboratory.
Stimulate them to differentiate into whichever type of specialised cell that we want.
Give them to the patient to replace their faulty cells.

96
Q

Give two drawbacks of using embryonic stems cells in stem cell therapy.

A
  • the body immune could reject the cells as the embryo and patient have different genotypes
  • embryos have a limited supply of stem cells
97
Q

what are advantages of using adult stem cells instead of embryonic stem cells in stem cell treatment?

A
  • the body wouldn’t reject them as their from the patients own body
  • because their taken from the patient there isnt a limited supply
98
Q

Is stem cell research in the UK legal or illegal?

A

Legal but scientists have to follow strict instructions

99
Q

why are stem cells used in medicine?

A

to replace faulty cells

100
Q

how can doctors prevent the body rejecting embryonic cells in stem cell treatment?

A

by giving the patent medication to suppress the immune system
- may not always work
- often causes side affects

101
Q

The stem cells could be infected with a _______ whilst in the laboratory, which could then infect the patient.
As stem cells divide quickly, there is a chance they could divide uncontrollably once they’ve been transplanted, and then develop into a _______.

A

virus
tumor

102
Q

what are the ethical reasons against the use of embryonic cells in stem cell treatment and the counter for it?

A
  • have potential for life
  • curing existing people is more important than the rights of an embryo
  • usually unwanted from a fertility clinic so would be destroyed anyway?

-

103
Q

what is diffusion?

A

diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

104
Q

True or false? If molecules are left alone they’ll move around randomly.

A

true
- molecules have kinetic energy so there constantly moving around

105
Q

In which of the following states can molecules diffuse?

solid
liquid
gas

A

liquid
gas

106
Q

Cell membranes are said to be ‘partially permeable’. What does this mean?

A

only some molecules can pass through

107
Q

Which molecules are able to diffuse into and out of cells?

A
  • water
  • amino acids
  • glucose
108
Q

List three factors that affect the rate of diffusion.

A
  • concentration gradient - larger concentration - higher rate of diffusion
  • temperature - higher temperature diffusion happen more quickly
  • surface area - larger diffusion happens more quickly
109
Q

Will a larger surface area increase or decrease the rate of diffusion?

A

increase

110
Q

Why does a higher temperature increase the rate of diffusion?

A

Higher temperature means particles have more (kinetic) energy
So they move around faster
And can diffuse more quickly

111
Q

true or false - is diffusion a passive process

A

true - diffusion is passive so no energy is being used up by the cell

112
Q

what is osmosis?

A

osmosis is the net movement of molecules across a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of low concentration

113
Q

True or false? Osmosis is a special form of diffusion.

A

true

114
Q

In living organisms, the partially permeable membrane is usually the ___________

A

cell membrane

115
Q

Osmosis is the movement of which molecules?

A

water

116
Q

True or false? During osmosis, water moves against the concentration gradient.

A

false - osmosis moves down the concentration gradient

117
Q

What would happen to red blood cells if they were placed in pure water?

(osmosis)

A

They would gain water and swell

he water concentration would be higher outside the cell (in the pure water) than inside the cell. This means that water would move down its concentration gradient into the cell, causing it to swell and possibly burst.

118
Q

what is active transport?

A

active transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a area of low concentration to high concentration. this requires energy from respiration

119
Q

Is active transport a passive or active process?

A

active

120
Q

True or false? Active transport can only take place across a membrane.

A

true

121
Q

Which process provides the energy required for active transport?

A

Respiration
Homeostasis
Translocation
Photosynthesis

122
Q

Why can’t plants absorb mineral ions by diffusion?

A

Their concentration is higher in the cell than in the soil

123
Q

Which cells in the plant are adapted to absorb mineral ions?

Palisade mesophyll cells
Root hair cells
Xylem cells

A

root hair cells

124
Q

Other than mineral ions, which other molecule do root hair cells absorb?

A

water

125
Q

where does cellular respiration happen

A

mitochondria

126
Q

Give two examples of exchange surfaces in humans and describe their function.

A

Example 1 - Alveoli (or lungs)
Example 1 - Alveoli allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse in and out of the body/bloodstream

Example 2 - Villi (or small intestines)
Example 2 - Villi allow nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, mineral ions etc to be absorbed from the small intestines into the bloodstream

127
Q

Which type of organism can rely on diffusion to exchange all of the nutrients and waste products it needs?

A

bacteria

128
Q

a cube is 4 cm x 4 cm x 4 cm
What is the total surface area of the cube?
Calculate the volume of the cube.
Calculate the surface area : volume ratio of the cube.

A

96
64
3:2

129
Q

Which organisms have a larger surface area to volume ratio?

A

smaller organisms

130
Q

What is an exchange surface?

A

A part of an organism over which substances are exchanged with the environment

131
Q

Where are alveoli found?

A

the lungs

132
Q

Root hair cells absorb _____ and______ ions from the soil.

A

water and minerals

133
Q

State and explain three features that most exchange surfaces have in common.

A
  • a large surface area so more molecules can be diffused at one time
  • a thin surface so molecules only have to diffuse a short distance
  • surface is permeable so substances are able to pass through

-Good supply of ‘external medium’
-Maintains a strong concentration gradient as the air or food etc is constantly replaced

134
Q

State and explain three features of alveoli that make them good exchange surfaces.

A
  • a large surface area so more molecules can be diffused at one time
  • a thin surface so molecules only have to diffuse a short distance
  • the surface is permeable so oxygen and carbon dioxide and diffuse across
135
Q

Which adaptation in plants contributes to the efficient exchange of gases?

A

The flattened shape of their leaves

136
Q

If you place a human hair on a microscope slide, and look at it under a microscope, is the hair itself considered the object or the image?

A

object
The hair itself is the object because it’s the real hair sitting on the slide.

137
Q

If you look at cheek cells under a microscope, are the shapes that you see when looking down the microscope the object or the image?

A

image
The shapes you see are the image because they are a magnified version of the real object, created by the microscope.

138
Q

What is the definition of magnification?

A

how many times larger the image is than the object

139
Q

What is the pathway of light through a microscope?

Light source ➔ _____ ➔ microscope slide ➔ ______ ➔ _________ lens ➔ body tube ➔ _________ lens ➔ eye

A

Light source ➔ stage ➔ microscope slide ➔ object ➔ objective lens ➔ body tube ➔ eyepiece lens ➔ eye

140
Q

Which type of microscope should be used to study sub-cellular structures (organelles)?

A

electron microscope

141
Q

Which type of microscope is easier to use and which is cheaper?
light
electron

A

light

142
Q

Convert 3 mm to μm.

A

3000μm

143
Q

Convert 560 nm to μm.

A

0.56μm

144
Q

Roughly how large is a bacterial cell?

A

1μm.

145
Q

Convert 4.7 cm to μm.

A

47000μm

first convert to mm
the convert to μm

146
Q

How would you rearrange the magnification equation to find image size?

A

image size = magnification x object size

147
Q

Which of the following are considered ‘eukaryotes’?

Animals
Protoctists
Fungi
Bacteria
Plants
Viruses

A

animal
protoctists
fungi
plants

148
Q

what is the idependant variable in the osmosis practical

A

concentration of the salt or sugar solutions

149
Q

what is the dependant variable in the osmosis practical

A

change in mass of the potato pieces

150
Q

what is the control variable in the osmosis practical

A

volume of solution, temperature of the solutions, time in the solution

151
Q

what the osmosis practical

A
  • cut potato into identical cyclinders
  • beakers with different sugar solution
  • one should be pure water and another should be very concentrated with a few other inbetween
  • measure mass of cyclinders before and leave one cyclinder in eahc beaker for 24 hours
  • take them out + dry them and weigh again

if cylinders have been drawn in by osmosis: increased in mass
if water has been drawn out they will have a decrease in mass

152
Q

why do we calculate the percentage change on the osmosis practical

A

you can comapre the effect of sugar concentration on cyclinders that didnt hav ethe same starting mass

biology (4 decks)

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