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cc1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what does ‘saturated’ mean?

A

a substance with only single bonds between carbons

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2
Q

what does ‘unsaturated’ mean?

A

a substance with at least one double bond between carbons

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3
Q

what are the main elements in a human body? (most to least)

A

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

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4
Q

what are ‘organic molecules’?

A

molecules that contain both hydrogen and carbon

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5
Q

what are ‘inorganic molecules’?

A

molecules that don’t contain both hydrogen and carbon

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6
Q

what is a ‘polymer’?

A

long chains of repeating units (monomers)

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7
Q

which elements are in carbohydrates?

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

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8
Q

which elements are in lipids?

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

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9
Q

which elements are in proteins?

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

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10
Q

which elements are in nucleic acids: DNA, RNA, ATP?

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphate

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11
Q

what ‘macronutrients’ are in the body? (most to least)

A

calcium, phosphate, magnesium, iron

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12
Q

what quantity are ‘macronutrients’ needed?

A

small concentrations

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13
Q

what is ‘magnesiums’ role in plants?

A

a component of chlorophyll

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14
Q

what is ‘magnesiums’ role in animals?

A

enzyme function

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15
Q

what is ‘irons’ role in plants?

A

growth

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16
Q

what is ‘irons’ role in animals?

A

a component of haemoglobin

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17
Q

what is ‘calciums’ role in plants?

A

strengthens cell walls

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18
Q

what is ‘calciums’ role in animals?

A

strengthen teeth, bones and nerves

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19
Q

what is ‘phosphates’ role in plants?

A

present in nucleic acids and phospholipids

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20
Q

what is ‘phosphates’ role in animals?

A

present in nucleic acids and phospholipids

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21
Q

which ‘micronutrients’ are in the body?

A

cobalt, copper, iodine, selenium, zinc

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22
Q

what quantity are ‘micronutrients’ needed in?

A

much smaller than macro

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23
Q

what is another name for ‘micronutrients’?

A

trace elements

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24
Q

structure facts about water

A

simple covalent, inorganic molecule, non linear molecule, dipolar, hydrogen bonds

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25
Q

what does a ‘non linear molecule’ mean for water?

A

angle between hydrogens is less than 180 degrees

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26
Q

what does ‘dipolar’ mean?

A

there is an uneven distribution of charge across a water molecule

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27
Q

why are water molecules ‘dipolar’?

A

oxygen is relatively negative, hydrogens are relatively positive

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28
Q

what are ‘hydrogen bonds’ in terms of water?

A

attractions between positives Hs and negative Os

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29
Q

why is water a liquid at room temp?

A

due to hydrogen bonding

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30
Q

why is water being a liquid at room temp significant for living things?

A

it is a transport medium

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31
Q

why is water a good solvent?

A

due to the dipolar nature of water

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32
Q

why is water being a good solvent significant for living things?

A

as a transport medium and reactions in cells occur in solution

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33
Q

why does water have a SHC?

A

due to hydrogen bonds

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34
Q

why is water having a SHC significant for living things (warm blooded)?

A

for mammals it makes it easier to homeostatically control body temp

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35
Q

why is water having a high SHC significant for living things (aquatic)?

A

aquatic habitats experience less temp fluctuations than terrestrial (land) habitats

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36
Q

what is the general formula for carbohydrates?

A

Cn(H2O)n

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37
Q

what is a monosaccharide?

A

one sugar

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38
Q

what is a disaccharide?

A

two sugars

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39
Q

what is a polysaccharide?

A

many sugars

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40
Q

what is the formula for trioses?

A

C3H6O3

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41
Q

what are trioses used for?

A

intermediates in respiration and photosynthesis

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42
Q

what is the formula for pentoses?

A

C5H10O5

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43
Q

what is the function of pentoses?

A

ribose / deoxyribose / RNA / DNA / structural roles

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44
Q

what is the formula for hexoses?

A

C6H12O6

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45
Q

what makes alpha glucose different to beta?

A

alpha glucose- C1 H is above, beta glucose- C1 H is below

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46
Q

what are alpha and beta glucose, galactose and fructose?

A

structural isomers

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47
Q

what is a disaccharide?

A

two monosaccharide units

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48
Q

what bonds are formed between monosaccharides?

A

glycosidic bonds

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49
Q

what is maltose made of?

A

two alpha glucoses

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50
Q

what is lactose made up of?

A

beta galactose and alpha glucose

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51
Q

what is sucrose made up of?

A

alpha glucose and fructose

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52
Q

what is maltose?

A

intermediate in starch digestion (starch to maltose to glucose)

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53
Q

what is lactose?

A

an energy source in milk for young mammals (suckled)

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54
Q

what is sucrose?

A

transported in phloem

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55
Q

how are disaccharides formed?

A

through a condensation reaction

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56
Q

where is the glycosidic bond formed in maltose?

A

OH on C1 and OH on C4 which forms water due to H2O lost

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57
Q

how are disaccharides broken down?

A

through a hydrolysis reaction. chemically adding water which recreates the OH groups

58
Q

what is a polysaccharide?

A

chains of monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds

59
Q

what shape are storage polysaccharides?

A

folded to give a compact molecule

59
Q

name 2 differences between monosaccharides and polysaccharides

A

mono= soluble and sweet, poly= insoluble and not sweet

59
Q

what shape are structural polysaccharides?

A

coiled or straight chained

59
Q

what is the function of starch?

A

main carbohydrate food reserve in plants

60
Q

what is starch made up of?

A

amylose and amylopectin which are a-glucose monomers held together by glycosidic bonds

61
Q

what is amylose?

A

linear, unbranched (1-4 glycosidic bonds)

62
Q

what is amylopectin?

A

branched (1-6 linkages)

63
Q

how are amylose coils held in place?

A

hydrogen bonds formed between hydroxyl groups

64
Q

what is the properties of starch?

A

compact, insoluble (doesn’t affect osmosis), readily converted to sugars

65
Q

what is the function of glycogen?

A

storage polysaccharide, only carbohydrate store in animals

66
Q

what is the structure of glycogen?

A

similar to amylopectin chemically, alpha glucose, branched, 1+4, 1+6

67
Q

what are the properties of glycogen?

A

insoluble, easily converted to glucose, compact

68
Q

what is the function of cellulose?

A

structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls

69
Q

what is the structure of cellulose?

A

beta glucose held together by 1-4 glycosidic bonds, every other flips 180 degrees, unbranched, chains are held together by hydrogen bonds forming strong cellulose fibres- microfibril = parallel chains (bundles)

70
Q

what are the properties of cellulose?

A

strong, rigid, hard to break down (humans can’t digest)

71
Q

what is the function of chitin?

A

structural polysaccharides in fungal cell walls and insect exoskeletons

72
Q

what is the structure of chitin?

A

polysaccharide with amino acids added - acetylamine (contains nitrogen), beta glucose polymer (alternate 180), hydrogen bonds, form microfibrils, unbranched

73
Q

what are the properties of chitin?

A

strong, lightweight, waterproof

74
Q

what are proteins?

A

amino acid polymers

75
Q

what is amino acids structure?

A

amino group (basic, pH>7), r group (vairable), carboxyl group (acidic, pH<7)

76
Q

how many amino acids are there?

A

20

77
Q

what is the general formula for all amino acids?

A

NH2CHCOOH

78
Q

how is a dipeptide formed?

A

condensation reaction

79
Q

what is the name of the bond between peptides?

A

peptide bond

80
Q

how is a peptide bond broken?

A

hydrolysis reaction

81
Q

what is the primary structure of proteins?

A

polypeptide chain, straight chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds between COOH and NH2

82
Q

how do different polypeptides have different primary structures?

A

number of amino acids, type of amino acids, sequence of amino acids

83
Q

what is the secondary structure of proteins?

A

folding of parts of the polypeptide chain

84
Q

what are the two types of folding in secondary structure?

A

alpha helix (spirals) and beta pleated sheets

85
Q

how are the folding in secondary structure held together?

A

hydrogen bonds between C=O and H-N of different peptide bonds

86
Q

what is tertiary structure of proteins?

A

3D folding of the entire polypeptide chain

87
Q

what shape is formed in tertiary structure?

A

compact spherical shape

88
Q

how is the tertiary structure held together?

A

by bonds between r groups

89
Q

what type of bonds are formed between r groups in tertiary structure?

A

hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulphide bridges, hydrophobic interactions

90
Q

do all proteins have a quaternary structure?

A

no

91
Q

how can a quaternary structure in proteins occur?

A

when there is more than 2 polypeptide chains

92
Q

how are the polypeptide chains held together in quaternary structure?

A

between r groups (hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulphide bridges, hydrophobic interactions)

93
Q

what type of role do fibrous proteins have?

A

structural

94
Q

what type of role do globular proteins have?

A

metabolic

95
Q

what are some examples of fibrous proteins?

A

skin, tendons, collagen

96
Q

what are some examples of globular proteins?

A

haemoglobin, enzymes, hormones, antibodies

97
Q

are fibrous proteins soluble?

A

no

98
Q

are globular proteins soluble?

A

yes

99
Q

are fibrous proteins stable? (affected by changes in temp or pH)

A

no

100
Q

are globular proteins stable? (affected by changes in temp or pH)

A

no

101
Q

what is the amino acid sequence like in fibrous proteins?

A

repetition of few amino acids (3 in collagen)

102
Q

what is the amino acid sequence like in globular proteins?

A

irregular (not repetitive)

103
Q

what is the structure like in fibrous proteins?

A

long parallel peptide chains. collagen = 3 chains (1000 aa each), form a helix > fibrils / fibres = very strong. no tertiary structure

104
Q

what is the structure like in globular proteins?

A

compact spherical shape, at least tertiary, very specific shape

105
Q

what are the 2 types of lipids?

A

triglycerides and phospholipids

106
Q

how are triglycerides made?

A

glycerol + 3 fatty acids -> triglyceride + 3H2O

107
Q

what elements are present in triglycerides?

A

CHO but less less oxygen compared to carbohydrates

108
Q

where do fatty acids and glycerol bind?

A

between carboxyl group of fatty acid and OH of glycerol

109
Q

what is the formula for glycerol?

A

C3H8O3 (alcohol)

110
Q

what reaction occurs for glycerol and fatty acids to bind?

A

condensation

111
Q

what is the name of the bond between glycerol and fatty acid?

A

ester linkage

112
Q

what are fatty acids?

A

hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group, vary in length and vary in degree of saturation

113
Q

what is the same about triglycerides and phospholipids?

A

glycerol, fatty acids, ester linkages

114
Q

what is different about triglycerides and phospholipids?

A

P have 2 fatty acids rather than 3, P has a phosphate group

115
Q

what is the role of phospholipids?

A

in cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer)

116
Q

what is the structure of phospholipids?

A

hydrophilic head (phosphate, glycerol) and hydrophobic tails (2 fatty acids - 1 unsaturated and 1 saturated)

117
Q

what is the test for lipids?

A

1- 2cm sample, approx 4cm ethanol, shake
2- new tube = 1/2 tap water
3- decant 1 into 2

118
Q

what is a positive test for lipids?

A

colourless to cloudy

119
Q

what is the test for proteins?

A

biuret test = biuret reagent or 1cm of NaOH with 2cm sample then 5 drops of dilute CuSO4

120
Q

what is a positive test for proteins?

A

pale blue to purple

121
Q

what is the test for starch?

A

add iodine

122
Q

what is a positive test for starch?

A

orange-brown to blue-black (purple = weaker)

123
Q

how do you make subjective colour tests more accurate?

A

use a colorimeter (darker colour = less light transmitted)

124
Q

what is the test for reducing sugars?

A

benedicts (heat)

125
Q

what is a positive test for benedicts?

A

blue to brick red

126
Q

what is the test for non-reducing sugars?

A

add dilute HCl and sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3)

127
Q

what is the function of lipids in energy storage?

A

in seeds in plants, in apidose tissues in animals, more energy released than carbs or proteins (37Kg/J vs 16 vs 17), repiration of lipids release large numbers of water (metabolic water) = energy

128
Q

what is the function of lipids in thermal insulation?

A

poor conduction of heat, stored in apidose tissue to insulate, low density of fat/blubber = buoyancy

129
Q

what is the function of lipids in electrical insulation?

A

in myelin sheath surrounding axon, increases speed of nerve impulses

130
Q

what is the function of lipids in protection?

A

triglycerides in apidose tissue protects organs from damage

131
Q

what is the function of lipids in waxes?

A

waterproof coating

132
Q

what is the function of lipids in cholesterol?

A

makes membrane stronger

133
Q

what is the function of lipids in steroid hormones?

A

oestrogen, progesterone, testosterone

134
Q

a high intake of what type of fat should be avoided?

A

saturated fats

135
Q

what type of fat could reduce cholesterol levels?

A

unsaturated

136
Q

where are low density / high density lipoproteins made and how?

A

in the liver when triglycerides and cholesterol become water soluble

137
Q

what is the function of low density lipoproteins?

A

pick up blood cholesterol and deposit in cells

138
Q

what is the function of high density lipoproteins?

A

gather up cholesterol from cells and transport to liver for excretion

139
Q

what does a high intake of low density lipoproteins mean?

A

increases the incidence of atheromas in coronary arteries (and others) which leads to blockages (reduces blood flow) and heart disease

biology (10 decks)

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