Cardiovascular Flashcards
Arteriosclerosis is classified into what 3 lesions?
Atherosclerosis, Monckeberg medial calcific sclerosis, and arteriolosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a disease of elastic and large muscular arteries in which the atheroma is the characteristic lesion. The lesions of atherosclerosis enlarge the arterial intima with variable amounts and types of lipids, connective tissues, inflammatory cells, and a variety of extracellular components including matrix proteins and enzymes and calcium deposits. Although “sclerosis” means hardening, atherosclerotic vessels may not be harder than normal and may even be softer. “Athero” literally means gruel-like, so the term atherosclerosis is a misnomer. Monckeberg medial calcific sclerosis is a calcification process that affects the media of large and medium-sized arteries. By Monckeberg’s definition, the calcific lesions involve only the tunica media of arteries without any compromise of the arterial lumen. However, sometimes the term is used when there is calcification of the tunica media and internal elastic lamina, or even just the internal elastic lamina; since the internal elastic lamina is part of the intima, “medial” calcific sclerosis would be a misnomer. Arteriolosclerosis is a lesion of arterioles, small arterial vessels with 1 or 2 layers of smooth muscle cells. It is most typically associated with HTN and DM. The 2 subtypes of arteriolosclerosis are the hyperplastic type and the hyaline type.
Carney Complex. AKA (3)?
AKA LAMB syndrome (Lentigenes, Atrial myxomas, Mucocutaneous myxomas, Blue nevi), NAME syndrome (Nevi, Atrial myxomas, Myxoid neurofibroma, Ephelides), or Swiss syndrome. AD condition. The majority (Carney Complex type I) are caused by mutations in the PRKAR1-alpha gene on 17q24, which has been suggested to function as a tumor-suppressor gene. Carney Complex type II involves chromosome 2. 7% of all cardiac myxomas are associated with Carney complex. M=F. Mean age at Dx: 10-20 years.
Dieulafoy disease.
AKA Dieulafoy lesion, Dieulafoy ulcer, caliber persistent artery, gastric aneurysm, gastric arteriosclerosis, submucosal arterial malformation, cirsoid aneurysm, and solitary exulceration simplex. Defined as an abnormally large artery that retains a large caliber as it approaches the mucosa. The mean diameter of pathogenic arteries at the level of the muscularis mucosae is ~1mm, versus normal arteries having a diameter of ~0.1mm. There is also an accompanying vein. MC location is the lesser curvature of the stomach, b/c the submucosal arteries of the lesser curvature are direct branches of the left gastric artery, whereas in the rest of the stomach, the submucosal vessels are of much smaller caliber b/c of their serial branching. The disease usually occurs in males, and there is a wide age range at time of occurrence.
Examples of pseudoneoplastic lesions in the cardiovascular system and their related neoplastic mimes.
Rhabdomyomatous hamartomas of myocardium (hamartoma of mature cardiac myocytes) [true adult rhabdomyoma]. Endodermal choristoma of interatrial cardiac septum [metastatic adenocarcinoma]. Lipomatous hypertrophy of the heart (lipomatous hypertrophy of the atrial septum) [lipoma]. Mesothelial-monocytic intracardiac excrescences (mesothelial/monocytic incidental cardiac excrescences) [metastatic adenocarcinoma or mesothelioma]. Endocardial and myocardial lymphocytic infiltrates post transplant (aka quilty lesions) [lymphomas]. Florid pericardial mesothelial hyperplasia [epithelial mesothelioma]. Other pseudoneoplasms include inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor and calcified amorphous tumor.
What are Weibel-Palade bodies?
Weibel-Palade bodies are characteristic inclusions of endothelium measuring up to 3 um in maximum dimension. These membrane-bound structures contain up to 25 parallel tubular arrays. These bodies are the site of storage of von Willebrand factor.
What immunostain reacts with the endothelium of cerebral capillaries, placental vasculature, and juvenile capillary angiomas?
GLUT-1.
Examples of pseudoneoplastic lesions in the mediastinum and their related neoplastic mimes.
Sclerosing mediastinitis (sclerosing carcinomas, lymphomas, or germ-cell tumors). Thymic dysplasia (thymoma). Benign mesothelial inclusions in mediastinal lymph nodes (metastatic carcinoma).
Papillary endothelial hyperplasia.
Papillary endothelial hyperplasia is a pattern of organizing thrombus that may occur within a vessel or hematoma. It may be seen incidentally in a surgical specimen or represent a symptomatic small mass by itself, in which case it is called a Masson’s tumor. It is composed of tiny papillae made of fibrin and red blood cells (but no true fibrovascular cores) covered by thin, bland endothelial cells.
What are the HACEK organisms?
Haemophilus (H. parainfluenzae, H. aphrophilus, H. paraphrophilus), Actinobacillus (A. actinomycetemcomitans, Aggregatibacter aphrophilus), Cardiobacterium hominis, Eikenella corrodens, Kingella kingae. These are all slow growing Gram negative bacteria that form part of the normal oropharyngeal flora. They account for 5-10% of infective endocarditis involving native valves, are the most common Gram negative cause of endocarditis among non-IVD users, and are a frequent cause of culture-negative endocarditis. In addition to valvular infections in the heart, they can also produce other infections such as bacteremia, abscess, peritonitis, otitis media, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, arthritis, osteomyelitis, and periodontal infections.
What is Austrian syndrome?
Austrian syndrome was first described by Robert Austrian in 1957. The classical triad consists of meningitis, pneumonia, and endocarditis all caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. It is associated with alcoholism, due to the presence of hyposplenia, and can been seen in males between 40–60 years old.
Coxsackie A virus causes (conditions). Coxsackie B virus causes (conditions).
Coxsackie A virus causes hand-foot-mouth disease and herpangina. Coxsackie B virus causes myocarditis, pericarditis, and epidemic pleurodynia (the grippe).
What are Quilty lesions?
QLs are collections of inflammatory cells usually found along the endocardium, but sometimes extending deeper into tissues, that can mimic acute rejection. QLs are also known as endocardial infiltrates and have been the subject of more than a dozen different studies, and there is still no consensus as to their etiology or significance. They have been associated with the use of cyclosporine and waxing and waning levels of immunosuppression. It has also been suggested that QLs represent a “benign” form of rejection, or an analogue of vascular rejection. More recent studies in experimental animals suggest that they may be sites of antigen processing and low grade immune stimulation. In human and experimental animals, QLs are comprised predominantly of T cells, with the CD4 subset predominating over CD8 cells by a ratio of 2-3:1. QLs have been subclassified on the basis of whether they infiltrate the underlying myocardium. In type A lesions, the border with the underlying myocardium is smooth. In type B lesions, the mononuclear cells infiltrate between myocytes in the underlying myocardium, but myocyte necrosis is not seen. On a practical level, QLs are generally not considered in the grading of cardiac allograft rejection, but mentioned in the diagnosis as a separate finding.
What is Twiddler’s syndrome?
Twiddler’s syndrome is a rare but potentially dangerous complication of device therapy for arrythmias. It refers to the intentional or unintentional twisting of the generator within the pacemaker pocket by the patient, resulting in either lead dislodgement or fracture without damage to the generator itself. Patients are risk for this condition are usually elderly, obese and often female, presumably due to their relaxed subcutaneous tissue that facilitates the rotation. Diagnosis is often incidental but can also present as problems on device interrogation such as loss of capture or stimulation of the pectoral muscle or diaphragm. Clinically it can manifest as twitching or the pectoral or abdominal muscles, chest pain, hiccups, change in voice, dysrhythmias, syncope or pre-syncope.
What are the 4 subtypes of hemangioendothelioma?
Epithelioid, spindle cell, retiform, kaposiform.
How are podoplanin and D2-40 different?
Basically, podoplanin is the protein, and D2-40 is the antibody against that protein. Podoplanin is a mucin-type transmembrane glycoprotein that is expressed in lymphatic endothelial cells (and several other cell types). The mouse monoclonal antibody D2-40 was originally raised against an oncofetal antigen, M2A antigen, which is an O-linked sialoglycoprotein with a simple mucin-type carbohydrate epitope associated with germ cell neoplasms, but then this antibody clone was found to be reactive with other antigens/cell types as well. D2-40: = anti-podoplanin.
In what clinical situations may endomyocardial biopsies be taken, and for each clinical situation, should light microscopy (LM), electron microscopy (EM), immunofluorescence (IF), and viral nucleic acid studies (NuAc) be done?
New-onset heart failure 3-month duration (LM, EM). Heart failure with dilated cardiomyopathy (LM, EM). Heart failure associated with anthracycline use (LM, EM). Heart failure associated with restrictive cardiomyopathy (LM, EM, IF). Suspected cardiac tumors (LM, EM). Cardiomyopathy in children (LM, EM, NuAc). Heart failure associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (LM, EM). Suspected arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy (LM). Plasma cell dyscrasia and cardiac symptoms (LM, EM, IF). Surveillance for cardiac rejection after transplantation (LM, IF).
Grossing and processing of endomyocardial biopsies.
For light microscopy, an adequate specimen for diagnostic interpretation usually consists of three or more pieces of endomyocardium, each measuring at least 1-2 mm^3. Specimens for light microscopy evaluation should be placed in room temperature 10% buffered formalin. EM, IF, and nucleic acid studies can be accomplished with a single piece of myocardium for each study. The one exception is to increase the number of pieces for EM evaluation of anthracycline toxicity. Tissue for EM should be placed in glutaraldehyde fixative; tissue for IF should be frozen in Optimal Cutting Temperature compound or placed in Zeus solution, and tissue for viral nucleic acid studies should be frozen or placed in RNAlater RNA stabilizing solution. Specimens taken for EM should be processed to generate thick sections at which time the pathologist can determine if EM will add additional information to the case. If tissue was not originally submitted for EM processing and EM is desired, formalin-fixed tissue can be processed for EM, or paraffin-embedded tissue can be reprocessed for EM. Tissue taken for IF can be held and used when appropriate. IF can be useful for subtyping amyloid deposits and in the determination of cardiac nonamyloidotic Ig deposition disease. When viral myocarditis is suspected, tissue may be frozen or placed in RNAlater and then sent to a laboratory that has expertise in viral genome detection by assessment of nucleic acids.
What sectioning methods and stains are used for endomyocardial biopsies?
A general consensus is that multiple sections (three or more) should be stained with H&E at different levels through the biopsy. For diseases that have a patchy distribution (sarcoidosis, myocarditis, etc.), even further sectioning can be performed if the entity is not seen on the initial slides. Intervening sections between H&E stains should be used for HC or IHC staining. A typical panel includes a collagen stain (Masson trichrome, Azan-Mallory, or Sirius red) for fibrosis, an elastic stain (Movat pentachrome, Verhoeff-Van Gieson) for endocardial fibroelastosis, a lymphocyte marker (CD3, CD8) for myocarditis, a macrophage marker (CD68) for myocarditis/myocyte injury, a glycogen stain (PAS) for glycogen storage disease, an amyloid stain (Congo red, thioflavin T, methyl violet, modified sulfated Alcian blue) for amyloid deposition, and an iron stain (Prussian blue) for hemochromatosis.
What is the rationale for why ventricular myectomy specimens are taken?
Myectomy specimens are taken from the left ventricular septum for relieve outflow obstruction. Traditionally, these specimens are taken from patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, although additional reasons for this resection include age-related angulation of the ventricular septum, sigmoid septum, and discrete subaortic stenosis. While these specimens are removed primarily for structural reasons to improve left ventricular outflow, they may be utilized to diagnose cardiac disorders.
What is the rationale for why cardiac apical core segment specimens are taken?
Apical cores of ventricular myocardium are obtained at the time of ventricular assist device (VAD) placement. With the advent of smaller and simpler VADs, their use as either a bridge to transplantation or as destination therapy in heart failure patients is increasing. Apical core tissue is removed when a device cannula is placed in the ventricular apex. While this material is not taken specifically for diagnostic purposes, useful information can be obtained from pathologic evaluation.
What is the rationale for why cardiac papillary muscle specimens are taken?
The most important cause of papillary muscle dysfunction is myocardial ischemia. Rupture of papillary muscle as a complication of acute myocardial infarction results in abrupt onset of severe mitral regurgitation and CHF. Rarely, papillary muscle avulsion has been reported as a consequence of blunt chest trauma. Distortion of the normal spatial relations of the papillary muscles may also be seen in left ventricuar dilatation and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and can result in mitral regurgitation. In some instances, mitral valve mobility is restricted by anomalous direct insertion of the papillary muscle to the leaflet or via shortened chordae. The gross specimen usually consists of the papillary muscle tip with attached segment of mitral valve leaflet and chordae.
What is the rationale for why atrial appendage specimens are taken?
Atrial appendages from either the right of left atrium may be surgically resected from patients with atrial fibrillation or atrial dilation to prevent embolic episodes, or from patients with congenital atrial aneurysms. The routine histology of the atrial myocardium in these patients differs from the ventricular myocardium. The myocardium in resected atrial appendages frequently displays profound myocyte hypertrophy and vacuolization, interstitial fibrosis, and not uncommonly amyloid deposition.
What is the rationale for why pericardial biopsies/resections are done?
Parietal pericardium may be removed as a diagnostic biopsy particularly in cases of suspected purulent, tuberculous or malignant pericarditis, or as a partial or radical pericardiectomy in cases of constrictive pericarditis. In the specimen, the degree of calcification and fibrosis should be assessed as well as the presence of purulent exudates and fibrin. If purulent infective pericarditis is suspected, sterile portions should be sent for culture.
What is the rationale for why aortic resections are done?
Segments of aorta are typically resected during the surgical repair of an aortic aneurysm, an aortic dissection, or a congenital anomaly such as coarctation. Such aortic resection specimens may contain diagnostic pathologic features that impact patient care, such as infectious or noninfectious artitis, or may show features suggesting an inherited connective tissue disease. Less commonly, segments of aorta may be surgically removed due to the presence of a neoplasm.