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carbohydrates Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what are carbohydrates

A

Carbohydrates

a. Carbon: hydrogen: oxygen (1:2:1)
b. Provide rapid supply of energy for cellular reactions (muscle and liver glycogen)
c. Important part of molecules (DNA sugar-phosphate backbone)
d. Form markers on cell surface which aid cell recognition (blood group markers)

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2
Q

how does the Plants produce energy via carbohydrate?

A

Plants produce energy via carbohydrate

a. Produce carbohydrates via photosynthesis
b. UV light locked in C-H bond
c. Breaking bond release energy
d. Organisms unlock, use, and transport the energy within complex carbohydrate polymers

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3
Q

Classification of carbohydrates

A

a. Monosaccharide – general formula (CH2O) n
b. Disaccharide – dimer of monosaccharides
c. Oligosaccharide – polymer of 3-20 monosaccharides
d. Polysaccharide – polymer of mono- or disaccharides

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4
Q

names of number of carbons: from 3-10

A

a. Three carbons – triose
b. Four carbons – tetrose
c. Five carbons – pentose
d. Six carbons – hexose
e. Seven carbons – heptose
f. Eight carbons – octose
g. Nine carbons – nonose
h. Ten carbons – decose

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5
Q

how to name a suger molecule

A

Count carbons from top
See if it either has a aldehyde or ketone
If so add:
Prefix- aldo Or keto
aldotriose (glyceraldehyde), aldopentose (ribose), aldohexose (mannose), ketohexose (fructose)
Then add number of carbon name

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6
Q

monosaccharides facts

A

a. Hydroxyl group position differs between different sugars(glucose, galactose and mannose)
b. Can exist in ‘deoxy’ forms (hydroxyl replaced with H), ( 3-deoxy-glucose,2-deoxy-ribose)

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7
Q

what is a stereoisomer ?

A

a. Same chemical and same order and types of bonds
b. Different spatial arrangement, biological function
c. D-isomers and L-isomers
d. Non-overlapping mirror images
e. Chiral carbon required for stereoisomerism

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8
Q

Naming stereoisomers:

A

a. Plane polarised light rotates to the right
- dextrorotatory
- given + symbol or d designation
b. Plane polarised light rotates to the left
- laevorotatory
- given – symbol or l designation

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9
Q

Configurational

A

a. D and L designation given
b. Related to structure of D/L-glyceraldehyde
c. D/L designation does not predict optical properties

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10
Q

what are examples of isomeric sugars

A

a. D-glyceraldehyde – the simplest sugar (a triose)
b. D-glucose – important dietary sugar
c. D-galactose – part of milk sugar
d. D-fructose – a very sweet simple sugar(l) – multiple chiral carbons -
e. D-ribose/D-deoxyribose – part of RNA/DNA, respectively
• All D-enantiomers, but not all dextrorotatory (d)

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11
Q

why is D-fructose D designation

A

• However, structural configuration is the same as D-glyceraldehyde at the penultimate carbon, thus its D designation

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12
Q

Exist as open-chain or ring (cyclic) structures joined by covalent bonds

cyclization ?

A

D-glucose- open chain
forms closed chain
can form:

alpha-D-Glucopyranose(36%)

beta-D-Glucopyranose(64%)(other OH and H on right side have swaped)

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13
Q

cylization II

A

cyclization of glucose in solution.

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14
Q

Glucose

A
  • The primary energy source for life
  • Seven energy-rich C-H bonds
  • Bonds broken down during cellular respiration
  • Released energy stored in ATP for future use
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15
Q

Fructose

A
  • Seven energy-rich C-H bonds
  • Important source of energy, along with glucose and galactose
  • Sweet monosaccharide found in fruits, honey, berries and melons
  • Forms a five ring furan-based structure (furanose) despite being a hexose sugar
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16
Q

Disaccharides

A
  • Two monosaccharides linked together
  • Formed by dehydration synthesis (condensation reaction) with the loss of H2O
  • Reaction aided by biological catalysts (enzymes)
  • Molecules joined at –OH groups by glycosidic links
  • Multiple configurations possible
  • Primary function is as a nutritional source of monosaccharides
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17
Q

the structure of maltose and where is it found:

A
  • Two glucose molecules joined at carbons 1 and 4 via an alpha 1,4 glycosidic link (bond)
  • Present in germinating seeds and grain (originating from breakdown of seed starch by amylase) and metabolism of maltose by yeast yields ethanol and CO2
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18
Q

the structure of lactose and where is it found:

A
  • Glucose and galactose molecules joined at carbons 1 and 4 via a beta 1,4 glycosidic link (bond)
  • Produced by lactating mammals as energy source for young
19
Q

the structure of sucrose and where is it found:

A
  • Glucose and fructose molecules joined at carbons 1 and 2 via an alpha 1,2 glycosidic link (bond)
  • Found in plants/sap, especially sugar cane and sugar beet
  • Very sweet tasting and plentiful in the western diet
20
Q

Disaccharide Hydrolysis

A
  • The glycosidic links in disaccharides can be broken down during digestion into constituent monosaccharides
  • This reaction requires H2O and specific enzymes
  • Monosaccharides are more easily absorbed through the gut lining
21
Q

state the three enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of the following substances and the products formed.

A
  • Maltase
  • Catalyses the hydrolysis of maltose to glucose & glucose
  • Lactase
  • Catalyses the hydrolysis of lactose to glucose & galactose
  • Sucrase
  • Catalyses the hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose & fructose
22
Q

why does Organisms must sometimes convert soluble sugars into an insoluble form?

A
  • For storage in the cell
  • For building structures
  • For taking part in cellular processes
23
Q

how are oligo and polysaccharides?

A
  • Monosaccharides are joined together by dehydration synthesis (condensation reactions) into small polymers:
  • Oligosaccharides (3-20 monosaccharides)
  • Or into long polymers:
  • Polysaccharides (long chains or branched structures)
24
Q

what are glycoproteins ?

A

Glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) attached covalently to their protein structure. They are glycosylated proteins.

25
Q

what is Glycolipids ?

A

Glycolipids are lipids that contain oligosaccharide chains attached covalently to their lipid structure. They are glycosylated lipids

26
Q

what are the two types of links that can be formed of oligosaccharide to glycoprotein.

A
  • Oligosaccharide attachment can be:
  • N-linked to amide N of asparagine residue of the protein (polypeptide) backbone
  • O-linked to hydroxyl O of serine and threonine residues of the protein (polypeptide) backbone
27
Q

whats the function of glycosylated proteins

A
  • Glycosylated membrane proteins play an important role in immune recognition
  • Secreted glycoproteins make up mucin and the glycocalyx
28
Q

what are Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)

A

• Long unbranched repeating disaccharide units

29
Q

what does GAGs contain?

A

• Consist of amino sugars and uronic acids

glucose to glucuronic acid

30
Q

what are GAGs properties ?

A
  • Hydrophilic (-ve charge) and readily form gels
  • High viscosity and low compressibility
  • Good lubricants and add structural integrity
31
Q

what are proteoglycans?

A

• When GAGs are attached to proteins via N or O links, they are known as proteoglycans (these are heavily glycosylated glycoproteins)

32
Q

what are mucopolysaccharides

A

• When GAGs are not attached to proteins, they are known as mucopolysaccharides

33
Q

give the names of two GAGs

A
  • Chondroitin

* Hyaluronic acid

34
Q

describe the bonds formed in chondroitin and hyaluronic acid.

A
  • Chondroitin
  • N-acetyl D-galactosamine (GalNAc) and D-glucuronic acid joined by beta 1,3 glycosidic links
  • Hyaluronic acid
  • N-acetyl D-glucosamine (GlcNAc) and D-glucuronic acid joined by beta 1,3 glycosidic links
35
Q

describe if the following molecules are sulphated and or attached to a protein.

Chondroitin
Hyaluronic acid

A

Chondroitin: Sulphated and attached to proteins via O link

Hyaluronic acid:Not sulphated and not attached to proteins (mucopolysaccharide)

36
Q

give uses Chondroitin and Hyaluronic acid

A

chondroitin: Forms proteoglycans in cartilage, heart valves and bone

Hyaluronic acide : • Acts as lubricant and shock absorber in synovial fluid and vitreous humour of eye

37
Q

what are glycolipid functions ?

A
  • Recognition signals
  • Attachment factors
  • Membrane stabilisers
38
Q

what are glycolipids associated with ?

A
  • Glycolipids are lipids with attached saccharide carbohydrate chains
  • Usually associated with phospholipids on the outer surface of the cell membrane
39
Q

what is Sphingolipids ?

A
  • Sphingolipids are a subtype of glycolipid
  • They contain sphingosine, a fatty acid and a charged head group
  • Sphingosine is an 18 carbon amino alcohol
40
Q

R determines the type of sphingolipid . Name 3 types of sphingolipid

A 
H = Ceramide (signalling molecule)
Phosphocholine = Sphingomyelin (found in membranes)
Carbohydrate = Glycosphingolipid
41
Q

what do Glycosphingolipids include ?

A

cerebrosides and gangliosides

42
Q

what are Cerebrosides and where are they found ?

A

Cerebrosides contain glucose or galactose and are found in muscles and nerves

43
Q

what are Gangliosides and where are they found ?

A

Gangliosides are complex, containing oligosaccharides and are found in plasma membranes

biology (25 decks)

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