CARBOHYDRATES Flashcards

1
Q

Considered as the most
abundant molecules on earth
and is the simplest among
other types of organic
compounds.

A

CARBOHYDRATES (CHO)

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2
Q

Empirical Formula of carbs

A

CH2O

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3
Q

Referred to as saccharides,
meaning “sugars”

A

CARBOHYDRATES

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4
Q

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES (give at least 4)

A
  1. Main source of energy for our body.
  2. Protein-sparing function
  3. Necessary for normal fat metabolism
  4. Cellulose stimulate peristaltic movement of our
    gastrointestinal tract and adds “bulk” in our stool
  5. Lactose promotes the growth of beneficial bacteria, causing
    laxative action.
  6. Glucose is the sole source of energy in our brain and proper
    functioning of our tissues.
  7. Certain products of carbohydrate metabolism act as catalyst
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5
Q

• A covalent bond that
is formed between a
carbohydrate
molecule and another
molecule such as
between two
monosaccharides.

A

GLYCOSIDIC BOND

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6
Q

Occurs in the tissues
such as the conversion
of galactose in the
liver to glucose. The
conversion is
catalysed by an
enzyme epimerase.

A

EPIMERIZATION

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7
Q

• Sugars with aldehyde function
or an acetal equivalent
• The monosaccharide is an
aldehyde if the carbonyl group
is at the end of the carbon
chain.

A

Aldose

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8
Q

Sugars having a ketone
function or an acetal
equivalent
• The monosaccharide is a
ketone if the carbonyl group is
at any other position.

A

Ketose

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9
Q

example of an aldose

A

glyceraldehyde

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10
Q

example of a ketose

A

dihyroxyacetone.

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11
Q

Sugars oxidized by
Tollens’ or Benedict’s or
Fehling’s reagents.

A

REDUCING

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12
Q

Sugars not oxidized by
Tollens’ or other reagents.

A

NON-REDUCING

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13
Q

• Consist of a single
polyhydroxy
aldehyde or ketone
unit

• Smallest
carbohydrates with
3-7 (5-6)carbon

A

MONOSACCHARIDES “Simple Sugars”

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14
Q

• Most common
monosaccharide
• Formula: C6H12O6

A

GLUCOSE

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15
Q

• Sweetest of simple
sugar that are
found in sucrose,
honey, fruits, and
vegetables.

• Formula: C6H12O6

A

FRUCTOSE

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16
Q

• A part of lactose
or a product of
lactose
breakdown.

• Formula: C6H12O6

A

GALACTOSE

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17
Q

• Composed of
short chains of
monosaccharides
that are joined together

A

OLIGOSACCHARIDES

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18
Q

• Are the most
abundant with two
monosaccharide
units that are joined
together through
dehydration
synthesis.

A

DISACCHARIDES (di-”two”)

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19
Q

•This sugar is formed
when a monomer of
glucose bonds to a
monomer of fructose.

A

A. SUCROSE

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20
Q

• Consist of
monomers of
glucose and
galactose

A

LACTOSE

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21
Q

Formed from
bonds of two
glucose
monomers.

A

MALTOSE

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22
Q

Composed of many
molecules of simple
sugar

A

POLYSACCHARIDES (Poly-”many”)

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23
Q

• Made up the cell wall of
plants
• Helps in lowering the glucose
level in the blood of people
with diabetes.
• It is also essential in
manufacturing numerous
products, including paper,
textiles and pharmaceuticals.

A

CELLULOSE

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24
Q

• These complex carbs have
the same structures and
functions.
• They supply energy for
longer period
• Since they are not
water-soluble, they need
digestive enzyme known as
“amylase” to break them apart

A

STARCH AND GLYCOGEN

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25
• Formed from the breakdown of starch, is obtained from starch by the application of heat or acids. • They are mainly used as adhesives and thickening agents.
Dextrin
26
• Sources from fruits and are often used as a base for jellies.
PECTIN
27
• Indigestible sugar that is found in agar, pectin, woody fibres, leaves, stems
HEMICELLULOSE
28
• Important in medicine and nursing as it provides test for renal function. • It is considered as a “prebiotic fibre” as it is fermented by bacteria that normalise our colon.
INULIN
29
The sum of all chemical reactions required for the nutritional and functional activities of the cell
METABOLISM
30
FOUR SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF METABOLISM:
1. To extract chemical energy from the environment such as from organic nutrients or from the sunlight. 2. To convert exogenous nutrients to building blocks or precursors of macromolecular components of the cell. 3. To assemble building blocks into CHO, CHON, LIPIDS, NUCLEIC ACIDS and another characteristic cell compound 4. To form (anabolism) and degrade (catabolism) these biomolecules needed for the specialised functions of the cell.
31
Food particles do not become part of our body tissues but are oxidised to produce energy
Exogenous
32
Food particles become part of our body tissues.
Endogenous
33
containing carbohydrate-splitting enzymes that is released in the small intestine
Pancreatic juice
34
absorbed into the mucosa cells of the intestine.
Monosaccharides
35
As glycogen in liver and muscles, when these reserves are filled, it is converted to _______ and deposited in ______
triglyceride, adipose tissue
36
If blood glucose exceeds renal threshold (____mg/dL), it will be excreted in urine
180mg/dl
37
CONCENTRATION OF BLOOD SUGAR
Fasting blood glucose (8-12 hours after the last meal) is 70-110 mg/dL
38
SOURCES OF BLOOD GLUCOSE
▪ Dietary carbohydrates ▪ Glycogenolysis ▪ Gluconeogenesis
39
A sequence of chemical reactions undergone by a compound or class of compound in a living organism
METABOLIC PATHWAYS
40
The process of oxidizing food molecules, like glucose, to carbon dioxide and water
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
41
The process by which a cell uses O2 to "burn" molecules and release energy.
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION
42
This process allows organisms to convert energy for their use without the presence of oxygen.
ANAEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION
43
Access of glucose to the cell can be regulated using the __________ proteins that transport glucose.
glucose transporter
44
▪ From Greek word “glykys”, meaning “sweet” and “lysis” which means “breaking” ▪ Initially explained by Gustav Embden and Otto Meyerhof ▪ The process of converting glucose into energy.
GLYCOLYSIS
45
in the process of glycolysis, The enzyme _________ phosphorylates glucose in the cell’s cytoplasm. In the process, a phosphate group from ATP is transferred to glucose producing glucose 6-phosphate.
hexokinase
46
in the process of glycolysis, The enzyme ____________converts glucose-6- phosphate into its isomer, fructose-6-phosphate.
phospholglucoisomerase
47
in the process of glycolysis, Phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate. Another ATP molecule is used by the enzyme _____________ to transfer a phosphate group to fructose-6-phosphate, forming fructose-1, 6- biphosphate.
phosphofructokinase
48
in the process of glycolysis, The newly high-energy phosphates further destabilize fructose-1, 6-biphosphate. The enzyme __________splits fructose 1, 6-biphosphate into two sugars that are isomers to each other.
aldolase
49
Net result for steps 4 and 5 in glycolysis
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate and 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate
50
in the second half of glycolysis, Glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate is converted into ________ and the formation of _____ ATP molecules and ____ NADH molecules.
pyruvate, two, two
51
in the second half of glycolysis, The enzyme _______ transfers a P from 1,3- bisphosphoglycerate to a molecule of ADP to form ATP.
phosphoglycerate kinase
52
in the second half of glycolysis, The enzyme __________ relocates the P from 3- phosphoglycerate from the third carbon to the second carbon, forming 2- phosphoglycerate (an isomer of 3-phosphoglycerate).
phosphoglyceromutase
53
in the second half of glycolysis, The enzyme ________ removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate, forming phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). This happens for each molecule of 2- phosphoglycerate
enolase
54
The last step in glycolysis. The enzyme _________ transfers a P from PEP to ADP, forming pyruvate and ATP. This happens for each molecule of phosphoenolpyruvate. This reaction yields 2 molecules of pyruvate and 2 ATP molecules.
pyruvate kinase
55
OUTCOME OF GLYCOLYSIS
2 molecules of pyruvate 2 molecules of ATP 2 molecules of NADH 2 molecules of water
56
THE OXIDATION OF PYRUVATE TO FORM ACETYL COA FOR ENTRY INTO THE KREBS CYCLE
TRANSITION REACTION
57
▪ This serves as a bridge connecting glycolysis with the Krebs cycle ▪ Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondrion. ▪ The acetyl coenzyme A is the high energy molecule that enters the Krebs cycle.
TRANSITION REACTION
58
▪ Oxidation of pyruvate. ▪ AKA as CITRIC ACID CYCLE • Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria. • Goal: take pyruvate and produce NADH and FADH2.
THE KREBS CYCLE
59
in the Krebs cycle, OXIDATION AND DECARBOXYLATION OF ISOCITRATE is catalyzed by the enzyme _________ , where isocitrate is oxidized, generating a five-carbon molecule, α- ketoglutarate, together with CO2 molecule and two electrons that reduce NAD+ to NADH.
isocitrate dehydroenase
60
in the Krebs cycle, OXIDATION OF SUCCINATE TO FUMARATE is catalyzed by the enzyme _________, in which succinate is converted into fumarate
succinate dehydrogenase
61
in the Krebs cycle, HYDRATION OF FUMARATE TO PRODUCE MALATE is catalyzed by the enzyme ________. The fumarate is hydrated, producing malate
fumarase
62
in the Krebs cycle, This is the final point of entry to the electron transport chain. This reaction generates the NADH and oxaloacetate
OXIDATION OF MALATE TO OXALOACETATE
63
PRODUCTS OF KREBS CYCLE
6 NADH are generated (3 per Acetyl CoA that enters) 2 FADH2 is generated (1 per Acetyl CoA that enters) 2 ATP are generated (1 per Acetyl CoA that enters) 4 CO2 are released (2 per Acetyl CoA that enters)
64
The last component of aerobic respiration and is the only part of glucose metabolism that uses atmospheric oxygen. (Rye, et.al, 2017)
ELECTRON TRANSPORT PHOSPHORYLATION (CHEMIOSMOSIS)
65
4 DISTINCT MULTIPROTEIN COMPLEXES IN ELECTRON TRANSPORT PHOSPHORYLATION
o Complex I (NADH-Co Q reductase or NADH dehydrogenase) o Complex II (succinate-Q-reductase) o Complex III (cytochrome reductase, cytochrome b-c-1 complex o Complex IV (cytochrome oxidase) as well as two mobile elements coenzyme Q and cytochrome C.
66
It is a multiprotein complex, having a Cytochrome b, another Fe- S protein, and Cytochrome c 1 component.
Cytochrome Oxidoreductase
67
PRODUCTS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- 2 NADH from glycolysis = 6 ATP - 2 NADH from transition reaction = 6 ATP - 6 NADH from Krebs cycle = 18 ATP - 2 FADH2 from Krebs cycle = 4 ATP 34 ATP
68
ENERGY YIELD FROM CELLULAR RESPIRATION:
- Glycolysis: 2 ATP - Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP - ETC: 34 ATP • 2 For NADH Transport • 36 ATPs
69
▪ Metabolism without oxygen, and is the only way to generate NAD+ ▪ Reduce pyruvate; thus, generating NAD+
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
70
This is a process in which it uses an organic molecule to regenerate NAD+ from NADH.
FERMENTATION
71
Occurs in yeasts in many bacteria, that produces ethanol, an alcohol.
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION
72
A fermentation method utilized by animals, and certain bacteria. For example, the bacterium Lactobacillus ferments lactose in milk, producing lactic acid – giving yogurt its sour taste.
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
73
▪ This is the synthesis of glucose from amino acids, pyruvate, lactate, or glycerol. ▪ It occurs primarily in the liver when supply of blood glucose is low such as when fasting, starvation, or low carbohydrate diet.
GLUCONEOGENESIS
74
▪ The synthesis of glycogen from glucose. ▪ Glucose is modified and gains the ability to be stored in long chains – glycogen. ▪ Key enzyme of glycogenesis is glycogen synthase
GLYCOGENESIS
75
This is the process in which glycogen molecule is broken down into glucose – a simple sugar used by our cells in producing energy
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
76
Key enzyme of glycogenolysis is _________
glycogen phosphorylase
77
▪ Forms 8-10% of the wet weight of the liver ▪ Maintains blood glucose (especially between meals) ▪ Liver glycogen is depleted after 12-18 hours fasting
LIVER GLYCOGEN
78
▪ Forms 2% of the wet weight of muscle ▪ Supplies glucose within muscles during contraction ▪ Muscle glycogen is only depleted after prolonged exercise
MUSCLE GLYCOGEN
79
It controls the rate of glucose absorption
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
80
The maximum rate of glucose absorption is _____ gm/kg body weight/ hour
1
81
▪ The main blood glucose state. ▪ Maintains blood glucose level within normal
LIVER
82
If blood glucose level increases, the liver controls this elevation and decreases it through what processes?
• oxidation of glucose • Glycogenesis • Lipogenesis
83
If blood glucose level decreases, the liver controls this drop and increases it through what processes?
• Glycogenolysis • Gluconeogenesis
84
All glucose in blood is filtered through the _______, it then completely returns to the blood by tubular reabsorption.
kidneys
85
If blood glucose exceeds a certain limit (called renal threshold), it will pass in urine, causing ________
glucosuria
86
• the only hypoglycemic hormone): • Facilitates the uptake of glucose in our cells – thus, maintaining normal glucose levels.
INSULIN
87
ANTI-INSULIN HORMONES (hyperglycemic hormones)
▪ Growth Hormone: - Gluconeogenesis ▪ Thyroxine: - Increase absorption of glucose in intestines - Gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis ▪ Epinephrine (adrenaline): - Glycogenolysis in both liver and muscles ▪ Glucagon: - Glycogenolysis in liver ONLY
88
It is an abnormal increase in blood glucose concentration due to decrease insulin secretion and/or hypersecretion of anti- insulin hormones.
HYPERGLYCEMIA
89
Previously known as Insulin- Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM) and usually develops among people younger than age 20.
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
90
This occurs when the person’s immune system attacks the beta cells of the pancreas, resulting to little or no insulin produced by the pancreas.
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
91
Previously known as Non- Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM), and much more common than type 1.
Diabetes Mellitus 2
92
It often occurs among obese people who are over age 35
Diabetes Mellitus 2
93
Low blood glucose level, due to excess insulin that stimulates too much uptake of our body cells of glucose.
HYPOGLYCEMIA
94
the balance of Insulin and Glucagon to maintain blood glucose
Glucose homeostasis
95
a potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus
Diabetic ketoacidosis
96
Signs and symptoms may include vomiting, abdominal pain, deep gasping breathing, increased urination, weakness, confusion and occasionally loss of consciousness.
Diabetic ketoacidosis
97
a condition where the person's breath may develop a specific "fruity" smell.
Diabetic ketoacidosis
98
develops during pregnancy in individuals that otherwise have never been diagnosed with diabetes in the past. It typically resolves after the woman gives birth
Gestational Diabetes
99
it increases her risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus later in life.
Gestational Diabetes
100
Gestational Diabetes Complications
- Large for gestational age infant - early (preterm) birth - hypoglycemia - stillbirth
101
increased urination
polyuria
102
increased thirst
polydipsia
103
increased apetite
polyphagia
104
the general product formed when starch is hydrolyzed is _____-
GLUCOSE
105
is a sugar alcohol that can be used to test for asthma, to reduce intracranial and intraocular pressure, to measure glomerular filtration rate, and to manage pulmonary symptoms associated with cystic fibrosis
MANNITOL IVF
106
the scale to measure how fast or slow carbohydrates are turned into blood glucose to guide the patient’s diet
GLYCEMC INDEX
107
sugars unsuited for parenteral feeding due to caloric restriction and toxic side-effects
GALACTOSE
108
the sweetest sugar
FRUCTOSE
109
excessive sweating
Diaphoresis
110
excessive eating
Diaphoresis
111
Most abundant polysaccharide in nature
starch and cellulose
112
blood glucose above a desirable level 1 or 2 h after a person has eaten.
Postprandial hyperglycemia
113
the opposite of photosynthesis
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
114
the opposite of photosynthesis
CELLULAR RESPIRATION