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Earth resources, Impacts and Sustainability > Bulk materials part 1 > Flashcards

Bulk materials part 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What represents the largest volume of earth materials extracted?

A

Building materials

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2
Q

What is the typical value of natural rock?

A

Low

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3
Q

What processes can be done to natural rock to add value?

A

Crushing
Cutting
Shaping
Calcining

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4
Q

What is the cheapest and most expensive rocks extracted in dollars per metric ton?

A

Cheap - Crushed stone ~$6
Expensive - slate ~$660

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5
Q

What is a dominant control on the cost of earth materials?

A

transport costs

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6
Q

What is the £/tonne km of different transport methods?

A

Lorry - 0.1
Rail - 0.04
Barge/ small ship - 0.016
Large ship - 0.002
Very large ship - 0.001

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7
Q

What are the positives of transporting by lorry?

A

Flexible
Small frequent loads

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8
Q

What problem is associated by transporting material by rail?

A

Limited to rail

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9
Q

What problems are associated by transporting materials by barge/ small ship?

A

Canal or coastal sites only

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10
Q

What transport problems are associated with large and very large ships?

A

Need deep water and special loading facilities

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11
Q

What different things can quarried stone be used for?

A

Rough construction
Rip-rap
Ashlar
Cut stone
Monumental stone
Flagstone/ paving
Slate
Terazzo
Crushed aggregate

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12
Q

What is the rough construction use of quarried stone?

A

Large blocks of rough hewn stone used for sea wall cores, bridge works and any other density filling usues
Finer mateiral for wall faces

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13
Q

What is the rip-rap use of quarried stone?

A

Large irregular shaped block (70-700kg)
Weighted supported stones for embankements, coast and river protection

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14
Q

What is the ashlar use of quarried stone?

A

rectangular bulding stone of non uniform size

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15
Q

What is the cut stone use of quarried stone?

A

Dimensional stone with textured surface
Can be thin veneers

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16
Q

What is the monumental stone use of quarried stone?

A

elaborate monuments

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17
Q

What is the flagstone use of quarried stone?

A

road construction and exterior flooring

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18
Q

What is the slate use of quarried stone?

A

Dressed roof tiles or mill stock slate
Small volume for snooker tables, lab surfaces or switch backs

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19
Q

What is the terazzo use of quarried stone?

A

Small chipped soft rock in cement for flooring / polished for smooth surface with lacing joins

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20
Q

What are the main attributes of building stone?

A

Apperance
Strength
Durability

Jefferson 1993

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21
Q

What did Robertson (1982) classify the attributes of bulding stone to be?

A

Hardness (H)
Elasticity (E)
Strength (S)
Permeability (μ)
Bulk density (Þ)
Linear thermal expansion (α)
Diffusifity (k)

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22
Q

How is hardness of bulding stone measured?

A

Moho scale

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23
Q

How is elasticity of bulding stone measured?

A

Youngs modulus

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24
Q

How is strength of bulding stone measured?

A

uniaxial compressive strength

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25
Q

What is aggregation?

A

combination of density, porosity and permeability are different aggregtion measures of mineral grains and how fluids enter rock

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26
Q

What are the geological parametrs affecting thr use of building stone?

A

Apperance (colour/ texture)
Block size and shape
Lateral and vertical variability
Fractures - faults, joints
Heterogenous vs homogenous
Frost susceptability
Presence of reactive minerals
Cementation
Weatherings rates
Clay content
Colour/ colour chnage

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27
Q

What are the three broad catergories for the causes of building decay?

A

Chemical
Physical
Biological

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28
Q

How can building stone be physically weathered?

A

Frost action
Thermal stresses
Attrition by pedestrians and vehicles along with wind blown particles

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28
Q

How can buidling stone be chemically weathered?

A

Atmospheric gas and liquid natural and man made
Soluble salts naturally in rock and created by humans (salt spreading)

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29
Q

How can buidling stone be biologically weathered?

A

Bacteria
Algae
Fungi
Lichens
Disruption by higher plants i.e., ivy

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30
Q

What is the problems associated with building stone for historic buildings with example?

A

Repairs and replacements from specific sites
Portland stone - finite production, low output, long backlogs

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31
Q

How can legal status affect the ulding stone usage in historic buildings?

A

Alternatives not permitted leading to high profile legal cases for a named stone

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32
Q

What are sand and gravel despoits in the UK associated with?

A

Concentrated in glacio-fluvial and marine sedimentary proceeses past and present most extensively on outwash plains and fluvial areas following quaternary glaciations

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33
Q

What triassic resource is there for sand/ gravel?

A

Triassic Bunter pebble beds crushed for use (remaining resources unconsolidated)

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34
Q

What is might mean sand is uneconomic when crushed from sandstone?

A

Unless there are specific properties (hardness, angularity, composition)

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35
Q

What are the most extensive uk terrestrial sequences of sand & gravel?

A

River deposits and terraces

36
Q

How is the economic threshold for river deposits of sand and gravel decided?

A

Plot size and depth (typically >600mm)

37
Q

How thick are the thickest uk gravels?

A

> 10m thick

38
Q

What is left behind when gravel is extracted?

A

Tpically leaves basal 30-50cm which will be impure and mixed with underlying bedrock

39
Q

Wh

What are terrestrial examples of sands and gravel?

A

Laterally varied potentially including muds/silts along with economically viable sand and gravel

40
Q

What are terrestrial sands and gravels geographically constrained by?

A

Topographic highs and in channels, often in flat lying agricullturally productive areas

41
Q

What is a marine example of sands and gravels?

A

Sands only
Well sorted by marine processes

42
Q

How fast is extarction of marine sands?

A

Fast ~500 tons an hour

43
Q

What is required of marine sands so that it can be used in construction?

A

Washing in freshwater

44
Q

What are the drawbacks associated with excavating marine sand desposits?

A

Ecologically devestating and can remove heavy metals

45
Q

What are terrestrial extraction techniques for sand and gravel?

A

Working at or below water table so potentially pumped dry
Face shovels/ excavators
Dragline
Bucket wheel excavator
Screening sieves
Sand and gravel conveyor

46
Q

What are the advantages of face shovels/ excavators?

A

Low capacity
Versatile
Cheap

47
Q

What factors needs to be considered when wanting to use a dragline to excavate sand and gravel?

A

medium capacity
less versatile than face shovels
Expensive

48
Q

What factors needs to be considered when wanting to use bucket wheel excavators to extract sand and gravel?

A

Very high capacity
Very expensive
None present in UK currently

49
Q

How are extracted sand and gravels transported for on site processing?

A

Truck or conveyor belt

50
Q

How is material extracted and what is rejected when extracting sand and gravel?

A

Screens from coarse to fine with anything above 80mm being rejected

51
Q

What might the screens for processing sand and gravel look like?

A

Pebbles 80-50mm
Gravels 50-20mm
Pea grit 20-5mm
Coarse sand 5-2mm
Fine sand 2-1mm
Fines (waste) <0.5mm

52
Q

Private company cotswold 2021

What is the value of gravel at source?

A

1m3= 1.41 tonnes
Per ton value = £13.03
Extraction/ processing waste = 80kg per ton

53
Q

What is the value of sand at source?

A

1m3= 1.52 tonne
value per ton = £16.21
Extraction/ processing waste = 50kg per ton

54
Q

What costs are associated with extracting sand and gravel?

A

PLanning and site aquisition
Exvation costs (vehicles, fuel etc)
Environemtnal protection and pumping
Processing costs (grading, storing)
Labouor
Weighing and sale cost
Landscaping and restoration

55
Q

What can diused excavation pits be used for?

A

Landfill
Recreational lakes
Ecological reserves

56
Q

What is the difference between cement, mortar and concrete?

A

Cement - chemical binder
Mortar- cement mixed with sand
Concrete- cement mixed with sands and gravel

57
Q

What are the ingredients of cement?

A

Limestone (CaCO)
Low amounts Fe, Mg, Mn
SHale or clay - alumina (Al2O3)
Shale clay or sand provides - silica

58
Q

What are some occasional ingredients in cement?

A

Iron products
Gypsum or annhydrite

59
Q

Why are iron products used in cement?

A

harden the cement faster

60
Q

Why might gypsum/ annhydrite be used in cement?

A

controls setting time

61
Q

What is the dominant ingredient in cement and how does this affect the location of cement works?

A

Limestone (10:1)
Cement works near limestone quarries

62
Q

What are the steps in producing cement?

A

Mining limestone
Crushing and grinding
(Addition of iron and clay)
Griding and mixing
Roasting (1500c)
(gympus added)
Grinding
Packaged and shipped

63
Q

WHat type of reaction is cement?

A

Water driven

64
Q

What is produced in the cement reaction?

A

interlocking calcium and aluminiun crystals

65
Q

WHat does cement bind with?

A

Porous materials upon contact

66
Q

What is rebar?

A

Iron rods placed into cement for additional strength and support

67
Q

What is the shelf life of cement?

A

Naturally set in 2-5 years (without water or damp)

68
Q

What are clays?

A

Groups of fine grained, hydrated minerals with layer structure at the atomic level

69
Q

What are some examples of clays?

A

Kaolinite ( China clay)
Hallosylite
Illite
Montmorillonite
Hectorite
Chlorite
Attapulgite

70
Q

How do clays form when settling out of soulution?

A

Settling of fine grained patricles from suspension in low energy environments like lakes and pools
Relatively pure but often high levels of organics
Typically for construction

71
Q

How do clays form from natural weathring?

A

Weathering of feldspars (typically in igenous)
Mineralogically pure (paper and ceramic production)

72
Q

How do clays form from flocculation?

A

mixing of natural water bodies (estuarine)
Laterally variable
HIgh levels of reactive sulphur and maybe high bacteria levels

Not recognised source

73
Q

What is ball clay?

A

Ultrafine particles which are easily cut and shaped

74
Q

What is the difference between china and ball clay?

A

China coarser and not as malleable

75
Q

How is china clay processed?

A

Washed from quarry by high pressure hose and flows to lowest quarry point
Slurry pumped to surface for processing
Kaolinite seperated by settling
Remaining slurry removed and dried

76
Q

What are also removed by settling from the slurry when wanting clay?

A

heavier minerals like quartz and mica

77
Q

What is the problem associated with large settling pools?

A

dangerous and hazardous

78
Q

What are the uses of clay in the UK?

A

95% of all uk bricks

79
Q

What problems are associated with using clay for bricks?

A

Transport limits value so usually locally sourced

80
Q

What is the carboniferous mudstone and what are its uses?

A

Northern england and central scotland
Variable quality
Small amount brick suitable (too high in carbon and sulphur)
30% uk consumption for clay pipes

81
Q
A
81
Q

What are the uses of the Etruria formation? (clay)

A

Midlands
Carboniferous age
High quality (close to ideal brick clay)
MOstly used by clay roof tilers

82
Q

What are the uses of the mercia mudstone group for clay?

A

Triassic age
Midlands
Mineralogy gives distinctive pale bodied housing/ engineering brick

83
Q

What are some examples of uk brick clays?

A

Fireclays
Oxford clays
Weald and wadhurst clays

84
Q

What ate the characteristics of the fireclays?

A

Carboniferous coalfields
Midlands and north uk
Produced in opencast coal extraction
Les than 7% uk consumption
High value (extraction cost and historic value)

85
Q

What are the characteristics of the peterborough memeber ‘oxford clays’?

A

Jurassic age
Cambridgeshire/ Bedfordshire
High C content
Unusual manufacturing process (pressed bricks fired in kiln)
Production limited but historically important

86
Q

What is the age and location of the weald and wadhurst clays?

A

Cretaceous
Southeast Endland

87
Q
A

Earth resources, Impacts and Sustainability (12 decks)

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