Breadth Study 2: Technological Innovation Flashcards
How much of the world’s manufacturing happened in britain in 1860?
1/4
What factor lead to a peak in British industrialisation?
The first railway systems
When did the first intercity railway open?
1830
Manchester-Liverpool
Why did the Royal Navy undergo major improvements in the 1790s?
Because of poor performance in the American war of independence 1775-83
Under who, did Royal Navy reform in the 1790s happen?
Lord Howe
Rear Admiral Middleton
Major general blomefield
How fast was shipbuilding in the 1780s?
It was kept at wartime levels, even in the period of peace
Ships built/repaired at record speed
Who was behind the ‘coppering’ initiative?
Rear Admiral Middleton
What was coppering?
Process of nailing copper sheets to the hulls of ships to protect them from shipworm/ marine organisms that slowed ships down
It was expensive but it improved vessel performance and meant they could stay at sea for longer
Who/what organisation improved the quality of Naval guns?
The royal ordnance
Led by Major general Blomefield
How did Naval guns improve under Blomefield?
He made sure every new naval gun was fired 30 times before being installed on a ship
This proved it was soundly manufactured
The firing mechanism was also changed to a flintlock firing mechanism which was more accurate
Flintlock firing mechanism
A mechanism where a piece of flint struck metal to produce a spark, which would then ignite the gunpowder
When were the carronades first developed?
At Carron Ironworks, Falkirk in the 1770s
What was the carronade originally designed for?
To give merchant ships something to fight back with
The rationale was that is was easier to use than navy guns, could be fired from the deck, which wouldn’t affect the merchants carrying capacity
The carronade
Short cannon that fired grapeshot at short range
It’s shorter barrel and wider muzzle gave it a broader angle of fire than a conventional cannon
Quick to reload,required little gunpowder
Could be devastating to the deck of an enemy vessel
Where did the biggest naval developments stem from?
Actions of private companies
Grapeshot
Ammunition that consisten of a number of small balls being fired together from a cannon
Why did the British Navy adopt the carronade?
They always had a traditional strength of being manouverable- this helped
It gave britain an advantage in close quarter fighting, it was risky boarding an enemy ship, using carronade meant they could fire at an enemy deck, and clear it before boarding party went on the ship
First use of a carronade
1782
A frigate called HMS Rainbow
It led to the surrender of the french ship ‘Hebe’
Give one example of the Carronade being used successfully by the British navy
HMS Glatton, 1795, was fitted entirely with carronade which was rare
It was overtaken by a squadron of french ships in the Indian Ocean which assumed it was an easy target, so they came close in an attempt to board it
The fire from HMS glatton caused the ships to withdraw because they were so badly damaged
Carronade at Trafalgar
2 68-pounder carronade on HMS victory, cleared the top gun deck when fired through the stern windows of the french battle ship ‘Bucentaure’
When were carronade phased out of Royal Navy service?
1851
Why did the use of carronade decline?
Change in navy tactics after the end of the french wars
It became standard to fight at a distance, with the increase of long range gunnery
The carronade were only good for short distance
What did carronade demonstrate the impact of, and how was this significant?
Illustrated the power of grapeshot against an enemy
The development of high explosive shells can be owed to the effectiveness of carronades
Shrapnel wounds from high explosive shells would be the most common wound in WW1
What other area than grapeshot, did carronades draw attention to?
Windage
What is windage?
The gap between a projectile and the inside of the gun barrel
How did the carronade assist the solution to windage?
Ideally the gap should be as small as possible, so as much of the gumpowder is used to propel the ball as possible
Windage could be tighter in carronades than in lng barrellled guns
Developments in engineering of more precise shells and rifled barrels meant windage was no longer an issue
When did the British experience rockets?
In southern India in the 1790s
Indian rockets were brought back after the British won the Mysore war, to Royal Arsenal at Woolwich in London
Who examined the rockets brought back from India and what was the significance of this?
By sir William Congreve, a British engineer
He developed a British variant, in belief they could be profitable if the military adopted them
What does the development of the British rockets by Congreve show about technological innovation in the military?
That individual entrepreneurship drove innovation
Congreve spent a lot of his own money on experiments (not the government) and he had a working model by 1806
When were Congreve Rockets adopted by the navy and army?
In 1806
Small numbers were used in the french wars
Describe the events of the first successful use of rockets by the Royal Navy
As part of an attack on Boulogne
In October 1806, 24 small warships fired 2’000 rockets at the city
Limited physical damage but significant psychological damage
why did Congreve rockets result in psychological damage in Boulogne, for the targets and firers?
Windage made rocket flight path unpredictable
Lots of smoke and noise
What french war naval battle were Congreve rockets used at and how did the tactics differ compared to Boulogne?
Copenhagen 1807
Same method but they added conventional weapons in order to bombard the city
What was the most notable use of Congreve rockets?
Fort McHenry in 1814 during the battle of Baltimore
Bombardment that lasted over 24 hours but they did not surrender
What did Fort McHenry highlight about the use of rockets?
That although they were loud and frightening they were inaccurate
So troops were unlikely to be physically affected
How did the Navy use Congreve rockets?
For ship-to-ship bombardment
Rocket rails, for rockets to be launched from, were easily fitted to the side of boats and ships could carry large numbers of rockets
What was the advantage of rockets for the navy?
They had a greater range than guns
So ships could anchor outside gin range and still attack onshore targets
the issues with rockets for the Navy
They had erratic flight patterns
Didn’t do the same damage as cannonballs could
Why was there more opposition to the use of rockets in the army?
Veterans from the Indian campaigns e.g. Duke of wellington, were reminded of their lack of accuracy and being a threat to firers as well as targets
Other generals were naturally conservative and regarded it as an unnecessary new weapon
Who encouraged the use of rockets by the army despite resistance?
The prince of wales
How successful was the prince of wales in keeping the rocket programme going?
He lobbied generals and politicians to push on with trials and develop rockets for combat
Resulted in the formation of the rocket brigade under second captain Bogue
Examples of the use of rockets
Battle of Leipzig- October 1813
Royal horses Artillery 1st rocket troops saw action in Toulouse and New Orleans
What army use of rockets demonstrated their limited success?
They were used in the battle of Waterloo, but the rocket troop was also equipped with conventional cannons
The fact they still used cannons and didnt expand use of rockets shows limited success
Army rocket use that shows that rockets had limited success
Some were used at Waterloo, but rocket troops were also equipped with cannons
The lack of expansion of rockets and consistent use of cannons shows limited success
Disadvantages of Congreve rockets that led to the end of their use
Problems of inaccuracy were never solved,deployment made difficult by areas with rough roads,they didnt store well- lost potency and didnt react well to extreme temperatures
These problems were becoming more apparent with more colonial wars
Although they were used after 1815, they were phased out by the end of the century in favour of steel artillery
what development of rockets in the 1840s had the potential to improve the use of rockets but didnt ?
William Hale (British inventor) created a rocket tat used spin to increase accuracy
They were adopted by British and American troops but still use was in limited numbers
How were firepower weapons loaded traditionally?
Through the muzzle
What was muzzle loading?
Ramming gunpowder down the barrel, before the projectile was placed
Re arming them was a complex process
It also meant the barrel would be fouled quickly and become less effective
What was the answer to the problem of muzzle loading?
Loading through the breech , a hole/chamber closer to the firer
What was the advantage of breech loading over muzzle loading?
Meant the weapon didnt need to be moved as muck
Reloading was simpler
Breech loading ammunition was loaded in a single unit- not gunpowder and bullet separately
The first breech loading cannon
Was developed in Britain by the Armstrong company in Norththumberland
They originally contacted the war office with their proposal for a new design in 1854, the first practical field gun for the army was ready for the army by 1858
Who was William Armstrong?
An industrialist and inventor in Newcastle
Be manufactured hydraulic cranes, helped supply water to Newcastle, and founded the university
He founded his own engineering company in 1847
What inspired Armstrong to make new weaponary?
Problems highlighted in the Crimean war
He set about designing a new cannon for the royal artillery
He was told his 5 pound gun was too small so set about creating a 18 pounder
What traditional problems was Armstrong new cannon meant to overcome?
Slow loading time
Barrel wear
Poor accuracy
It was clear the solution lay with a reliable,robust, breech loading gun
How did Armstrong new cannon improve the loading time?
By placing the projectile in breech
Armstrong gun had a screw thread on the breech so it could be replaced and screwed back into position before the gun was fired
Other designs used a sliding block to seal the breech when the gun was fired
What improvement accompanied the change to breech-loading cannons and why was it a good improvement?
Coating projectiles in a soft metal e.g. lead
This would expand slightly when gun fired0 put more spin on shell
It was softer than the metal in the barrel so barrel wouldn’t be worn down as quickly
It reduced windage, less propellant gases lost, so less gunpowder used
What/who can the solutions to barrel wear and accuracy be contributed to?
Armstrong new shells
And the minie ball principle
Minie ball
A bullet made from iron and lead
It is hollow in the conical base which expands to grip the rifling inside the barrel so the happy is spun in flight for greater accuracy
When did the army adopt 12 pound breech loaders?
1859
They saw service in New Zealand wars in 1861
What was found with the use of breech loading weapons in battle?
Guns required more maintanence and higher level crew training, more expensive ammunition
The army was not prepared for this
So despite the success of breech loading weakness they reverted back to muzzle loaders because they were simpler and cheaper
What type of artillery became the norm from the 1880s
Breech loading artillery
Breach loading weapons used in Boer war
The BL 12 pounder, a lighter version used by horse artillery and a navy quick firing 12 pounder
Guns in WW1 and the role of Armstrong
Larger guns used in larger numbers
Many were designed and manufactured by Armstrong company
When did the Royal Navy adopt Armstrongs 12 pounder and how successful was it
Adopted in 1894
Main armament for naval destroyers in ww1 and 2
Had a slightly shorter barrel
What did breech loading guns have a large impact on?
Ship design
Larger breech loading guns needed to be mounted in revolving turrets rather than firing out of holes in the side
How did the breech loading cannon cause significant changes in warfare- at sea and on land?
Improved range and reliability of weaponary made battlefields wider and deeper
Waterloo in 1815: 2 and a half miles long
Somme battlefield 1916: 25 miles long
Explain the significance of effect that armstrongs cannons had on design of warships
Without breech loaders, the switch from broadside firing to turret mounted guns wouldn’t have happened, neither would the progression of large, heavily armed battleships in the same way
The naval race between germany and britain before WW1 owed much to cannon design advances
How did armstrongs cannon affect war on land?
It became static
Men had to rely on trench systems to protect themselves from enemy cannons
Only way they could gain ground was high casualty frontal assaults
Servicemen in 20th century wars were more likely to be harmed by artillery fire, previous biggest danger was sickness
What was the most decisive change in the use of artillery due to breach loading weaponary
Range- change in tactics
Because they could fire so far, the gun or battery commander couldn’t see the effects of his fire
Relied on a spotter to tell him if it was effective, signalling therefore became important e.g. flags,field telephone, radio,aeroplanes- mapping area
Who designed the first modern machine gun?
Sir Hiram Maxim in 1884
Known as the maxim gun
How did the Maxim gun work?
Used energy of recoil to expel used cartridge and place the next one in the breech
The single barrel was surrounded by a sleeve that contained water in order to stop it overheating
what was required for a maxim gun to work?
Large gun by modern standards- needed a crew to move,set up and service it
Could be fired by one man
It was claimed that the maxim gun could fire 600 rounds a minute
Who was acquired by the Vickers company, and what did this lead to?
The Maxim Nordenfelt company in 1987
Set about making an improved design of the Maxim gun
How did the Vickers improve the maxim gun design?
Principles remained the same but it was made more reliable and lighter
The parts were easier to mass produce and the standard version used the same ammunition as the infantry rifle
It still needed a crew to move it but the gun itself had a tripod to rest on so it was easier to move
How did gun tactics in the First World War change by 1915?
A lighter machine gun- the Lewis gun was given to infantry battalions
Vickers gun (heavier machine guns) were reformed into the Machine Gun corps and then larger machine units were assigned to divisions
Eventually each division had its own machine gun battalion
Who invented and developed the Lewis gun?
Invented by American colonel Lewis
Developed by the British small arms company in Birmingham
What effects did the Vickers gun have?
Change in tactics
Less men needed to hold an area
Better training for soldiers
How did the Vickers gun and other machine guns impact tactical changes?
Prior to 1914, warfare was mobile. Machine guns were a major contributor to static trench warfare
The rate of fire from these guns was a significant factor because men could no longer operate in open ground without being mowed down
Why did the machine gun impact the number of men needed to hold an area?
A single machinr gun could deliver the same volume of fire as 40 or 50 rifle men- could fight an equal sized infantry
Increasing soldiers due to conscription, meant both sides could hold a continuous front
Why did machine guns impact soldier training?
Soldiers needed to be trained better to look after them
The guns had a lot of moving parts and men serving in these units needed mechanical expertise to repair and clean the guns- so specialists compared to ordinary infantrymen
What developments, made the concept of tanks a possibility?
The Industrial Revolution brought steam engines, then internal combustion engines
Developments of tractors used in rough terrain and cars
Gave the idea of machine that could protect occupiers from energy fire and even have its own gun
What were the tank development programmes known as, and who supported them?
The ‘landships’ programmes
Initially supported by the Royal Navy
Pushed forward by Winston Churchill- first lord of the admiralty at this point
When did the land ship programme really begins?
June 1915
After reluctance from the army, the government made it a joint venture by the army and navy
Members of the landships committee
Lead by Eustace d’Eyncourt- director of naval construction
Major Walter Wilson- had designed the gearbox, navy engineer
Sir William Tritton- his company developed tank tracks and the first prototypes
Why were the ‘landships’ named tanks?
Name adopted in December 1915
As a security measure
It was leaked they were developing a ‘water tank’ for use in the Middle East
The word tank then proceeded to stick
First working British prototype of the Tank
‘Little willie’
Developed in summer 1915
By a team led by Wilson and Tritton
What were the benefits of ‘little willie’?
Showed the benefit of caterpillar tracks for rough terrain and the plan to mount a single pom-poms gun to the top turret and six machine guns
Why did ‘little willie’ become ‘big willie’?
Inventors weren’t happy with its performance so altered the design
Describe the new prototype of the tank- ‘big willie’
It was closer to the rhomboidal shaped tanks with tracks that would be standard in WW1
The first satisfactory version worked by December 1915, and was renamed mother
What advantages did ‘big willie’ have and what did the prototype lead to?
It had a lower centre of gravity than little willie so it would be prevented from toppling when moving over fixed defences
It was developed into the first combat ready ‘Mark I’
Difficulties with the first tanks
Large and cumbersome- required engines for both tracks
Difficult to operate
Slow top speed
Needed large crews
No steering
Very noisy which made communication difficult-relied on runners which could get shot
Combat debut of the tank and how successful it was
September 1916 during the Somme offensive
Mechanical problems meant only 24 of original 50 made it to the sstartng line
Several more then broke down and some were destroyed by artillery fie
Some however did participate in the capture of villages of Flers and Martinpuich
What tanks were used in 1917 and 18
Mark IV and Mark V
They were upgraded Mark I with better engines and heavier armour
The french and Germans undertook their own tank programmes
Germans had far less tanks- hesitancy to adopt, they also didnt have the same means of mass production that the British did
What was the most successful use of tanks in ww1
Battle of Cambrai, November 1917
Over 400 tanks supported infantry and followed a creeping barrage
The British made so much progress on the first day with the use of tanks but the Germans counter attacked in the following days and managed to maintain their position
What were tanks effective at?
Clearing barbed wire and supporting the infantry
To what extent did tanks change tactics in WW1?
The full potential would only be realised in WW2
Their development was a means of supporting the nfantry to break through heavily defences trench systems
They did become an established part of mass attacks against fixed positions but would only later change tactics- they were introduced so close to the end of the war and other factors resulted in german surrender too
Initially how did tanks affect soldiers?
Shock
Noise = terror for exposed infantry men who had to face them
