Brain

Question 1

Papilloedema is a clinical sign of increased intracranial pressure. What can cause this?

Answer 1

Tumours, malignant hypertension, head injury and haemorrhage.

Question 2

Name 3 layers of the meninges and which layers do they form in relation to the optic nerve?

Answer 2

Dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater. These form, respectively, in the optic nerve, the outer sheath, the intermediate sheath and the inner sheath.

Question 3

What is “visible distortion of the optic disc?”

Answer 3

Papilloedema or optic neuritis.

Question 4

Are dendrites efferent or afferent neuronal cell processes?

Answer 4

Dendrites are afferent neuronal cell processes (they receive information).

Question 5

How do choroid plexuses develop?

Answer 5

They develop where pia mater and ependyma come into direct contact eg. roof of fourth ventricle.

Question 6

What is the choroid plexus?

Answer 6

Sac like invaginations that project into the ventricular cavity. These invaginations for the choroid plexus which produces CSF.

Question 7

What is the ependyma?

Answer 7

Thin epithelium-like lining of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. Involved in the production of CSF.

Question 8

What is a chiara malformation?

Answer 8

This is where the cerebellum pushes down into the spinal canal. Type 1- defect in mesoderm. Types 2 and 3- defect in neuroectoderm.

Question 9

What is the pterion?

Answer 9

Region of the skull where the frontal, parietal, temporal and sphenoid bones all join together.

Question 10

What are lateralising signs?

Answer 10

These are signs that helps you to localise a CNS pathology to a particular area of the brain eg. bradykinesia and dyskinesis allows a localisation of a lesion or pathology to the basal ganglia in the brain.

Question 11

What is the Monroe-Kellie prinicple?

Answer 11

Monroe-Kellie hypothesis is a pressure-volume relationship that aims to keep a dynamic equilibrium among the essential non-compressible components inside the rigid compartment of the skull. Intracranial volume is constant.

Question 12

What is ‘Attention’?

Answer 12

A global cognitive process encompassing multiple sensory modalities, operating across sensory domains. Can be subdivided into various component cognitive processes: arousal, vigilance, divided attention, selective attention.

Question 13

What is arousal?

Answer 13

A general state of wakefulness and responsivity.

Question 14

What is vigilance?

Answer 14

Capacity to maintain attention over prolonged periods of time.

Question 15

What is divided attention?

Answer 15

Ability to respond to more than one task at once.

Question 16

What is selective attention?

Answer 16

Ability to focus on one stimulus while suppressing competing stimuli.

Question 17

Discuss ischaemia as a diffuse brain injury symptom.

Answer 17

Hypoxic brain damage is found in 91% of fatal HI. Consequence of raised ICP, hypoxaemia, reduced cerebral perfusion pressure.

Question 18

What is concussion?

Answer 18

A (temporary) disturbance in brain function as a result of trauma. Symptoms include: headache, dizziness, balance problems etc. Signs: seizure, loss of consciousness, irritable. These signs and symptoms may be delayed.

Question 19

What is second impact syndrome?

Answer 19

Second-impact syndrome (SIS) occurs when the brain swells rapidly, and catastrophically, after a person suffers a second concussion before symptoms from an earlier one have subsided. This second blow may occur minutes, days or weeks after an initial concussion, and even the mildest grade of concussion can lead to SIS.

Question 20

What are ballistic movements?

Answer 20

Movements largely based on a set of pre-programmed instructions. Rapid but at the expense of accuracy- little opportunity for compensation for unexpected changes.

Question 21

What is proprioception?

Answer 21

Feedback from peripheral sensory receptors on the positions and movement of limbs-somatic sensory cortex.

Question 22

What is kinaesthesia?

Answer 22

Sense of movement, speed of movement, direction of movement (heaviness or sense of effort).

Question 23

What is bradykinesia?

Answer 23

defined as a reduction in the speed, gait and amplitude of a repetitive action involving voluntary movements. A common clinical presentation associated with this feature is difficulty getting started or initing movements and a slow, shuffling, gait.