book Flashcards
It is known to contain a mixture of colors found in the rainbow
White Light
Analytical methods based on the absorption of radiant energy
Absorptimetric methods
Absorptimetric methods which utilize the visible region of the spectrum
Colorimetric methods
Some of which are of great importance in medicine and pharmacy
Colorimetric methods
The color and intensity of the transmitted radiant energy are a measure of the concentration and are determined by comparison with a color chart, or more accurately, by this instrument.
Spectrophotometer
It is defined as the methods if analysis which deal with the measurement of spectra.
Spectrometry
It is the term used to define the complete system of energy propagated in wave form.
Electromagnetic spectrum
It refers to energy in the UV, Visible, and IR regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
Radiant energy
It is a branch of spectrometry which embraces the measurement of the absorption, by chemical species, of radiant energy of definite and narrow wavelength, approximating monochromatic radiation.
Spectrophotometry
It is the length of a complete wave or cycle, from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next
Wavelength
Range of wavelengths of UV
200-380 nm
Range of wavelengths of Visible
380-780 nm
Range of wavelengths of Near IR
780-3000 nm
Range of wavelengths of Medium IR
3.0 to 15 um
Range of wavelengths of Far IR
15 to 300 um
It may be defined as the number of wages per centimeter and is equal to 1/wavelength (cm)
Wavenumber
It may be defined as a functional group which absorbs radiant energy in the UV or Visible regions of the spectrum.
Chromophore
It may be defined as the number of comete cycles which pass a given point per second (cps).
It may also be expressed in Hertz
Frequency
It is a branch of spectrophotometry in which absorption measurement is made in the visible region of the spectrum:
Colorimetry
These are often used even though a compound to be analyzed absorbs in the UV REGION
Colorimetric methods
These are terms used to designate instruments which have a radiant energy-dispersing device, such as prism or grating, and the associated electronics which permit the measurement of wavelength and radiant power
Spectrophotometer and Spectrometer
Are terms used to designate instruments which have the necessary electronics to permit measurement of radiant power but which use a filter instead of a prism or diffraction grating for the purpose of increasing the sensitivity of the measurement
Colorimeter and Filter Photometer
This transition occurs in the UV and Visible regions
Electronic Energy Transitions
This transition occurs in the IR regions
Vibrational and Rotational Energy Transitions
Fundamental vibration in which the distance increases or decreases along the bond axis
Stretching
Fundamental Vibration in which a change in bond angles occur
Bending (deformation)
The region from 3.0 to 8.0 um is referred to as
Group Frequency Region
The 8.0 to 15 um region is referred to as
Fingerprint region
It states that the power of a transmitted radiant beam decreases exponentially as the concentration of the solution containing the absorbing chemical species increases arithmetically.
Beer’s Law
It states that a power of a transmitted radiant beam decreases exponentially as the thickness of solution containing the absorbing chemical increases arithmetically
Lambert’s or Bouguer’s Law
It is a combination of two laws and relates the power of the incident and transmitted radiant beams to the thickness and concentration of the solution containing the absorbing chemical species
Beer-Lambert or Beer-Bouguer Law
The ratio of the radiant power transmitted by the solution to the radiant power transmitted by the blank.
Transmittance
It is also called optical density, absorbancy, extinction coefficient
Absorbance
Concentration expressed jn grams of solute per liter of solution
Concentration
The value obtained by dividing the absorbance by the product of concentration, expressed in grams per liter, and the path length, expressed in cm
Absorptivity
The value obtained by dividing the absorbance by the product of the concentration of the solution, expressed in moles per liter, and the path length exposed in cm
Molar Absorptivity
The graph obtained when absorbance or any function of absorbance is plotted against wavelength
Absorption spectrum
An example of null-balance manually operated instrument
Beckman DU-2 spectrophotometer
An example of a direct-reading manually operated spectrophotometer
Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20
Spectral range of Bausch and Lomb spectrophotometer
340 to 950 nm
It is intended to establish within limits that a product has uniform amounts of an active ingredient in batch preparations of pharmaceutical dosage forms such as capsules, tablets, suspensions, and sterile solids
Content Uniformity Test in the USP
Are frequently used as identification tests for pharmaceutical substances.
Spectrometric absorption methods
Most frequently used regions of EM spectrum in Spectrometric Absorption Methods
UV and IR regions
It is the region most often applied for identification purposes
Medium IR region
In the IR region of the EM spectrum, it cannot be used as a solvent because it strongly absorbs most of the IR radiation
Water
In other IR (also UV) analyses, it is a technique used to obtain the absorbance value of the solute
Baseline technique
It is used in the assay of lithium carbonate, USP XIX, an anti depressant agent
Flame spectroscopy
Other elements used for the assay by the Flame spectroscopy technique
Potassium, Sodium, Calcium
Most frequently used flame spectroscopic methods
Flame Emission Spectrophotometry
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry
It involves the measurement of light absorbed by metal atoms, and in this regard resembles conventional absorptimetric methods
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
It is an emission phenomenon which may be explained as follows.
Fluorescence
Two ways in which molecules revert to the ground state level
Collision deactivation (nonradiative process)
Luminescence (radiative process)
In this process, the energy is lost as heat through collision of the molecules in the excited state with surrounding molecules in a solution.
Collision deactivation
In this process, molecules with electrons in excited states quickly lose excess vibrational energy to their surroundings.
Luminescence
These may be made by using a spectrophotometer fitted with the appropriate attachments, or by using commercially available fluorometers
Fluorometric measurements
Are considered branches of spectrometry in which transmitted or reflected light, respectively, is measured after radiant energy passes through a turbid solution or suspension.
Turbidimetry
Nephelometry
It is based on the measurements of the brightness of the light reflected by a cloud of finely divided particles
suspended in a liquid.
Nephelometry
These are used in official assays of the majority of antibiotics, calcium pantothenate, Vitamin B12, and other medicinal agents.
Turbidimetric methods
The greater the turbidity (due to microbial growth) , the less the activity of antibiotics.
TRUEEEE
The term used by the USP to designate solution turbidity
Turbidance S.
It may be determined by the turbidimetric or nephelometric method.
Turbidance
It may be defined as a process in which a solution of a mixture containing inert materials, drug principles, and impurities is separated into its components while moving through a bed of fixed porous solid having different and reversible affinities for the substances being separated.
Chromatography
It is derived from the method’s original use in the separation of colored compounds on a suitable adsorbent.
Chromatography
It is particularly useful as a means of separating and purifying complex and closely related chemical substances which are difficult to separate by classical methods
Chromatography
The basic principles upon which chromatographic separation depends:
Adsorption
Partition
Ion exchange
Molecular exclusion
Examples of adsorbents commonly used in column chromatography
Purified siliceous earth
Activated alumina
Silica gel
Calcium Carbonate
In this commonly used provedure, the columb is washed with suitable solvent referred to as eluants.
Elution chromatography
It brings out the separation of a mixture through a competitive process in which the molecules of tbe mobile phase compete with analyte molecules for polar adsorption sites on the adsorbent
Adsorption chromatography
The chromatographic process when the mobile phase is a liquid
Liquid-Solid Chromatography
Partition chromatography in which the mobile and the stationary phases are liquids
Liquid-Liquid Chromatography
Each cell contains a pair of immiscible
solvents (ether and water):
Lower phase (stationary phase)
Upper phase (mobile phase)
If the solid adsorbent is filter paper (cellulose), the process is referred to as
Paper Partition Chromatography
3 main methods or procedures for the preparation of paper partition chromatograms:
descending chromatography
ascending chromatography
radial chromatography
It is accomplished by allowing the mobile phase to flow downward on the paper strip
Descending Chromatography
The mobile phase is allowed to rise upward on the paper by capillary attraction
Ascending Chromatography
The mobile phase moves out in concentric circles from the center of a circular piece of paper.
Radial chromatography
It is also based on the partition phenomenon, but as the name implies, the nonpolar solvent is fixed to the paper or solid column material and acts as the stationary phase, and a polar solvent is used as the mobile phase.
Reversed-phase chromatography
Materials used to pack columns for use in this method are either cation or anion exchange resins.
Ion-exchange Chromatography
They contain either Sulfonic Acid (-SO3H) or Carboxylic Acid (-COOH) groups in the Y position of the resinous structure.
Cationic exchangers
The use of ion-exchange resin in the isolation of an alkaloid will be illustrated in the assay of papaverine hydrochloride
Ion-Exchange experiment
It is also known as gel filtration or gel permcation chromatography
It is defined as a separation procedure in which differential migration of solute molecules is based on molecular size.
Molecular Exclusion Chromatography
It involves the spotting of a sample of a mixture of components at one end of an adsorbent-coated glass plate or other suitable support followed by passage of solvent.
Thin-layer Chromatography (TLC)
It uses as the mobile phase an inert gas commonly called the carrier gas.
Gas Chromatography
It is also referred to as the liquid substrate, usually consists of a high-boiling liquid which is used to coat granular particles (60 to 80 mesh) made of siliceous earth or firebrick.
Gas Chromatography
The tube containing the coated particles and is mounted in the constant-temperature heating chamber of a GC apparatus.
Column
Terms most frequently used to describe retention
Retention Time
Retention Volume
It deals with peak broadening and depends upon solvent, solute, temperature, flow rate, and sample size.
Column efficiency
Column efficiency may be evaluated by conducting ___
Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate Measurement (HETP)
It was introduced in distillation processes as a means of evaluating packed distillation column performance where there were no discrete plates.
HETP
These are used to evaluate columns of different lengths and is the preferred measure when comparing column efficiency.
HETP values
