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Blood vessels exam Flashcards

1
Q

arteries are

A

efferent and divergent

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2
Q

Veins are

A

afferent and convergent

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3
Q

capillaries are

A

exchange vessels

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4
Q

Tunica intima

A

inner most layer of vessels made of endothelium and elastic lamina

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5
Q

tunica media

A

middle layer of vessels made of smooth muscle

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6
Q

tunica externa

A

outer layer of vessels made of connective tissue

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7
Q

Do capillaries have all three layers

A

no they only have tunica intima

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8
Q

difference between arteries and veins

A

arteries have thicker walls, more resilient, high pressure, more smooth muscle, and smaller lumen while veins have larger diameter with a larger lumen, have valses, and depend on skeletal muscle to move blood, low pressure

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9
Q

elastic arteries

A

conducting, largest arteries and closest to the heart, highest pressure, expand and recoil in response to pressure.

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10
Q

Muscular arteries

A

distributing, medium size, thick muscle layer, distribute blood to specific organs.

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11
Q

elastic rebound

A

recoil of arteries at beginning of ventricular diastole

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12
Q

aneurysm

A

Swelling in the arterial wall due to localized weakness. Can burst causing hemorrhage.

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13
Q

atherosclerosis

A

plaques form as monocytes engulf cholesterol and become foam cells, they stick to endothelial cells and damage it, tissue overgrows, and platelets stick to the damaged wall.

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14
Q

capillary beds

A

cluster where capillaries are generally found

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15
Q

tissue perfusion

A

blood supply to a tissue through a capillary bed

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16
Q

precapilary sphincters

A

controls the amount of blood flowing into the capillaries. Each capillary-metarteriole junction contains one

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17
Q

metarterioles

A

small ateriole that feeds each capillary bed

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18
Q

thoroughfare channels

A

where metarterioles drain into.

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19
Q

Continuous capillaries

A

tight junctions that permit the diffusion of water, gases, small and lipid soluble molecules (skin and muscle tissue),

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20
Q

fenestrated capillaries

A

pores that permit the diffusion of larger molecules (kidneys, endocrine glands, small intestine)

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21
Q

sinusoids

A

discontinuous endothelium with large pores that permit very large molecules and blood cells (liver, bone marrow, spleen)

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22
Q

what do the valves of veins do?

A

extensions of the tunica intima that overlap and prevent backflow

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23
Q

where is most of the blood in the body at?

A

in the veins called venous reserve

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24
Q

what does the muscles and respiration do for blood movement?

A

both help propel blood along veins by squeezing the veins when muscles and lungs are contracted/larger in size

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25
Q

portal system

A

blood flows through two consecutive capillary networks before returning to the heart

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26
Q

arteriovenous anastomosis

A

allows an artery to empty directly into a vein without passing through a capillary bed (provide an alternative pathway for blood),

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27
Q

arterial anastomosis

A

pathway between two arteries. Exist in many organs like the heart and brain

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28
Q

venous anastomosis

A

pathway between two veins

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29
Q

Hepatic portal circulation

A

the hepatic portal vein brings blood to liver and hepatic veins drain blood from liver.

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30
Q

Blood supply to the brain

A

the brain is the #1 priority and receives blood from the internal carotid and vertebral arteries.

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31
Q

Fetal circulation

A

lungs are collapsed and that blood bypasses the lungs via the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus

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32
Q

role of the umbilical artery

A

to return blood to the placenta from the fetus

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33
Q

role of the umbilical vein

A

to bring blood to the fetus from the placenta

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34
Q

angiogenesis

A

the development of new blood vessels

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35
Q

factors that cause angiogenesis

A

embryonic development, growth, wound healing, endurance training, obesity, tumors

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36
Q

Hemodynamics

A

physiology of blood flow in the cardiovascular system. Heart generates a pressure gradient to overcome the peripheral resistance of blood vessels and generate flow

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37
Q

blood flow

A

the amount of blood flowing through an organ, tissue, or vessel in a given time

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38
Q

perfusion

A

the flow per given volume or mass of tissue in a given time.

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39
Q

blood pressure

A

outward force exerted by blood on the walls of blood vessels

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40
Q

how is blood pressure calculated

A

BP (mm Hg) = CO x PR

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41
Q

main factors that influence blood pressure

A

CO, PR and Volume

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42
Q

Systolic P

A

peak blood pressure measured during ventricular systole

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43
Q

Diastolic P

A

minimum blood pressure at the end of ventricular diastole.

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44
Q

pressure is lower in pulmonary or systemic circulation?

A

pulmonary circulation

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45
Q

pulse

A

rhythmic pressure oscillation that accompanies each heartbeat

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46
Q

Hypertension

A

high blood pressure (140/90)

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47
Q

hypotension

A

low blood pressure (90/50)

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48
Q

how do you calculate pulse pressure

A

Pulse pressure = systolic – diastolic

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49
Q

How do you measure mean arterial pressure?

A

MAP (Mean arterial pressure) = diastolic + pulse P/3

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50
Q

what does pressure do as you move from arteries to veins?

A

decreases

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51
Q

Cardiovascular regulation

A

body regulates blood pressure to ensure constant blood flow to organs and tissues

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52
Q

Autoregulation

A

Local regulations in specific tissue. Tissues regulates itself.

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53
Q

Local myogenic

A

dilation/constriction of muscles. Can prevent fluctuations in blood flow by making changes in vessel diameter which causes local changes in resistance and flow

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54
Q

metabolic mechanisms

A

maintained by chemicals that are locally released.

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55
Q

Vasodilators

A

In active tissue: low oxygen, high CO2 and low pH and NO, histamine, prostacyclin. Dilating vessels brings more white blood cells

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56
Q

Vasoconstrictors

A

endothelins and thromboxane

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57
Q

Neural regulation

A

Regulates through sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. (faster). Can control constriction of vessels and cardiac output.

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58
Q

Effects of sympathetic NS

A

speeds up heart, increase cardiac output, causes vasocontraction, increase PR, increase BP

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59
Q

Effects of parasympathetic NS

A

slows down heart, decrease cardiac output, no effect on vessels but indirectly vasodilation, BP will go down

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60
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

detect oxygen levels

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61
Q

Endocrine regulation

A

regulation of homeostasis through the release of hormones (slower). Can affect the amount of blood.

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62
Q

epinephrine/norepinephrine

A

cause CO to increase and bring blood pressure up, cause vasoconstrict

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63
Q

ADH

A

saves water, blood volume goes up, and BP goes up

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64
Q

aldosterone

A

saves sodium, which saves water, and blood volume goes up. Blood pressure goes up

65
Q

Capillary exchange

A

two-way movement of fluid across capillary walls

66
Q

Diffusion

A

the movement of molecules and ions down their concentration gradient. Will diffuse from blood to tissue where concentration is less.

67
Q

how does the size of molecules affects diffusion across continuous capillaries

A

proteins cannot diffuse through. rate of diffusion depends of size of gradient and molecule. Continuous capillaries only allow small molecules.

68
Q

Filtration

A

movement of fluid out of capillaries by the hydrostatic pressure

69
Q

how does filtration work

A

pressure drives water and solutes out of vessel/capillaries. CHP drives filtration. Pushes water out.

70
Q

reabsorption

A

movement of water from tissue back into the capillary. COP drives reabsorption. Colloid Osmotic pressure (COP) pulls water into capillary.

71
Q

net filtration pressure calculation

A

NFP = CHP–COP

72
Q

Overall is there more filtration or reabsorption

A

filtration

73
Q

NFP positive numbers vs negative numbers

A

positive= filtration, negative=reabsorption

74
Q

effects of edema

A

causes increased CHP and decreased COP, so more filtration

75
Q

effects of dehydration

A

decrease CHP increase COP, so less filtration

76
Q

effects of hemorrhage

A

results in decreased CHP so less filtration

77
Q

cardiogenic shock

A

inadequate pumping of the heart

78
Q

anaphylactic shock

A

severe immune reaction to antigen, histamine release, generalized vasodilation, and increased capillary permeability

79
Q

septic shock

A

bacterial toxins trigger vasodilation and increased capillary permeability

80
Q

functions of the lymphatic system

A

immunity, regulation of interstitial fluid, absorption of dietary fats

81
Q

where does WBC production take place?

A

WBC production in bone marrow and thymus

82
Q

leukopenia vs leukocytosis

A

leukopenia = reduced number of WBC caused by HIV or chemotherapy. leukocytosis = increased number of WBC caused by infection or leukemia

83
Q

general characteristics of WBCs

A

 Generally, don’t perform their functions within the blood
 can migrate out of the blood vessels and move via amoeboid movement
 are attracted to specific chemical stimuli
 many are capable of phagocytosis

84
Q

granular WBCs

A

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

85
Q

agranular WBCc

A

monocytes and lymphocytes

86
Q

neutrophil structure

A

most abundant, multilobed nucleus, attracted by dying tissue or bacterial secretion

87
Q

neutrophil function

A

attack and kill pathogens like bacteria by releasing granule content or by phagocytosis, contribute to local inflammation, attract other immune cells

88
Q

PUS

A

dead neutrophils and other debris

89
Q

what does high numbers of neutrophils mean

A

indicator of inflammation

90
Q

eosinophils structure

A

large red granules contain cytotoxic, bilobed nucleus

91
Q

eosinophils function

A

effective against large parasites through exocytosis of toxic compounds on the parasite

92
Q

basophil structure

A

very rare, large dark granules, contain histamine and heparin

93
Q

basophil function

A

activated by IgE antibodies, role in allergic reactions

94
Q

monocytes/macrophages structure

A

largest leukocytes, no granules, u shaped nucleus, when they exit the blood they are called macrophages

95
Q

monocytes/macrophages function

A

aggressive and long-lived phagocytes, engulf and destroy pathogens, attract other immune cells activate other components of immune system by displaying phagocytosed antigens

96
Q

difference between free and fixed macrophages

A

free = circulating, fixed = resident tissue macrophages

97
Q

Lymphocyte morphology

A

small cells with large spherical nucleus and a light blue rim of cytoplasm

98
Q

lymphocyte production

A

production of b cells in bone marrow and t-cells in thymus

99
Q

lymph compared to plasma

A

has low protein content compared to plasma

100
Q

difference between systemic circulation capillaries and lymphatic capillaries

A

lymphatic capillaries have larger diameter, are blind ended for a one-way system, and are leakier

101
Q

what do larger lymphatic vessels have?

A

valves

102
Q

lymphedema

A

blockage of lymphatic drainage from a limb

103
Q

Natural killer cells

A

large lymphocytes that do immunological surveillance

104
Q

lymphatic cells

A

natural killer, T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, reticular cells, and macrophages

105
Q

dendritic cells

A

mobile cells found in the epidermis and mucous membranes that present pathogens to immune system cells

106
Q

reticular cells

A

type of fibroblasts that produce reticular fibers and provide structural support for lymphatic organs

107
Q

lymphoid tissue

A

reticular tissues dominated by lymphocytes

108
Q

MALT

A

loosely organized clusters of lymphoid tissue, which includes tonsils, payer’s patches, and appendix

109
Q

payers patches

A

located in last portion of small intestine

110
Q

lymph node structure

A

small, bean-shaped clusters of lymphatic tissue surrounded by capsule of connective tissue located along lymphatic vessels

111
Q

lymph node function

A

to filter lymph and detect antigens and initiate an immune response

112
Q

three types of tonsils

A

pharyngeal tonsil, palatine tonsils, and lingual tonsil

113
Q

red pulp in the spleen

A

contains macrophages which destroy old RBCs

114
Q

white pulp in spleen

A

filters pathogens from blood and contains leukocytes and dendritic cells

115
Q

function of spleen

A

filters blood

116
Q

thymus does what with age and is important for?

A

its size changes with age and importance for T cell production and maturation

117
Q

immunes system

A

the proteins, calls, and tissues responsible for defending the body against both environmental hazards and internal threats

118
Q

pathogen

A

molecules that cause disease

119
Q

three lines of defense

A

o First line: cutaneous and mucous membranes that act as a barrier to block entry of pathogens
o Second line: responses of cells and proteins that make up innate immunity
o Third line: includes responses of cells and proteins of adaptive immunity

120
Q

innate immune response

A

first line of defense. We are born with it. quick and non-specific, respond to any pathogens, barriers always there even if no stimulus

121
Q

adaptive immune response

A

longer and highly specific, will recognize one specific pathogen, and remembers what it has encountered from before. carried out by humoral (b-cell mediated) and cell mediated (t-cells)

122
Q

surface barriers of innate immunity

A

hair, skin, and mucous membranes, sebum, sweat, saliva, stomach acid

123
Q

immunological responses

A

fever, compliment system, cytokines

124
Q

phagocytes

A

engulf pathogens; macrophages, neutrophils and eosinophils

125
Q

inflammation

A

local tissue response to injury

126
Q

stages to inflammation

A

injury, inflammatory mediators released, inflammatory mediators trigger: vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, pain, recruitment of other immune cells

127
Q

signs of inflammation

A

redness, swelling, heat, pain

128
Q

properties of innate immunity

A

surface barrier, immunological surveillance, physiological responses, phagocytes, inflammation

129
Q

properties of adaptive immunity

A

specificity, versatility, memory, and self-tolerance

130
Q

specificity

A

each T or B cell responds only to one specific antigen and ignores the others

131
Q

versatility

A

the body can recognize many types of antigens

132
Q

memory of adaptive immunity

A

memory cells stay in circulation and when re-exposed to the same pathogen the body reacts quicker

133
Q

self tolerance

A

ignores self-antigens

134
Q

antigen presentation

A

“docking sites” for specific components of antigens that are then displayed

135
Q

MHC class 1

A

found on all nucleated cells. Recognized by cytotoxic t cells. Present antigens found inside the cell

136
Q

MHC class 2

A

found on specific immune cells. Recognized by helper t cells. Present antigens taken in by phagocytosis

137
Q

cell mediated response

A

responds primarily to cells infected with intracellular pathogens (virus, cancer, transplanted organs…)

138
Q

steps to cytotoxic T cell response

A
  • activation: T cell recognizes an antigen presented on MHC class 1.
  • Cell division to make copies of activated t cell
  • find and destroy abnormal cells presenting the antigen
  • some t cells stay in circulation and become memory cells
139
Q

steps to helper T cell response

A
  • activation: recognize an antigen presented by MCH class 2
  • cell division and make copies
  • helper t cells release cytokines (chemicals) to activate immune response
  • Some become memory cells
140
Q

steps to antibody-mediated B cell response

A
  • Activation: b cell receptor recognizes an antigen. B cell presents the antigen to helper t cell. Helper t cell releases chemicals to activate b cell.
  • Cell division to make copies
  • B cell becomes a plasma cell and releases antibodies
  • Some b cells become memory cells
141
Q

location and function of v region of antibodies

A

where the antibody binds to antigen

142
Q

classes of antibodies

A

 IgG: most abundant and can cross the placenta
 IgE: involved in allergic reactions
 IgD: on the surface. The b cell receptors
 IgM: first to be produced by plasma cell
 IgA: work together in innate immunity

143
Q

how do antibodies work?

A

neutralization, agglutination, complement fixation, and opsonization

144
Q

neutralization

A

prevent pathogens and toxins from interacting with out cells

145
Q

agglutination

A

antibodies stick to each other

146
Q

complement fixation

A

destroy antigen

147
Q

opsonization

A

coat pathogen and enhance phagocytosis

148
Q

primary immune response

A

first time you are infected with certain pathogen

149
Q

secondary immune response

A

re-exposure to pathogen

150
Q

active natural vs active artificial

A

N = through exposure via infection, A = through vaccination

151
Q

active immunity

A

own immune system makes antibodies

152
Q

passive immunity

A

receive antibodies from someone else

153
Q

passive natural vs passive artificial

A

N = mother’s milk, A = : inject antibodies to toxins or venoms (being bit by a snake, rabies…)

154
Q

principles of graft rejection

A

cytotoxic t cells and NK cells attack foreign cells and cause necrosis

155
Q

immunodeficiency disorder

A

immune system incompetent (not working). ex: HIV/AIDS

156
Q

autoimmune disorder

A

immune system treats self-antigens as foreign and attack own tissue

157
Q

hypersensitivity reaction

A

cause the immune system to overreact which can damage tissues

158
Q

Immediate hypersensitivity

A

allergy, anaphylaxis: if antigen gets in blood causes vasodilation

224 (7 decks)

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