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ASC171 - Final exam modules > Blood > Flashcards

Blood Flashcards

1
Q

Roles of blood?

A

Carries - nutrients to tissue; O2 from lung to tissue; CO2 from periphery to lung; hormones from endo. glands to target organs; waste from tissues to kidney -> excretion
Regulates - ion composition of interstitial fluids via diffusion; pH by neutralising acid (eg lactic acid)
Restricts - fluid loss at injury sites
Defends - immune sys (toxins/pathogens)
Stabilises - body temp

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2
Q

Composition of blood…?

A

RBC’s
WBC’s
plasma
platelets

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3
Q

Define haematocrit

A

Proportion of cells in blood relative to plasma - PCV & buffy coat

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4
Q

What does PCV measure and indicate?

A

Health of animal
Number of erythrocytes (RBC) in blood stream
Also indicates oxygen delivery capacity

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5
Q

Normal animal PCV/TP?

A

~40% & ~60%

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6
Q

What would PCV be in anaemic animal?

A

low

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7
Q

What would PCV be in dehydrated animal?

A

high

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8
Q

PCV response to training & fitness?

A

increases

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9
Q

Haematocrit of: anaemic, polycythaemic, dehydrated animals?

A

anaemic ~ 30%
polycythaemic ~ 70%
dehydrated ~70% (but less TP)

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10
Q

Blood volume, viscosity, temp, pH?

A

BV - 8-10% of lean body weight
Viscosity - 5 times that of water
temp - slightly above normal body temp
pH - between ~7.35 - 7.45

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11
Q

Different types of acidosis…?

A

Diabetic acidosis
Hyperchloraemic acidosis
Lactic acidosis

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12
Q

What is diabetic acidosis?

A

accumulation of ketone bodies during uncontrolled diabetes

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13
Q

What is hyperchloraemic acidosis?

A

Excessive loss of sodium bicarb. from severe diarrhoea

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14
Q

What is lactic acidosis?

A

Accumulation of lactic acid (prolonged lack of oxygen due to shock, heart failure; prolonged exercise; seizures; hypoglycaemia; alcohol; liver failure)

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15
Q

Different types of alkalosis…?

A

Respiratory alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis
Hypochloraemic alkalosis
Hypokalaemic alkalosis

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16
Q

What is respiratory alkalosis?

A

Altitude or disease -> decreased O2 -> hyperventilation -> low CO2 -> resp. alkalosis

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17
Q

What is metabolic alkalosis?

A

excess bicarbonate in blood

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18
Q

What is hypochloraemic alkalosis?

A

Extreme lack or loss of Cl (possibly due to prolonged vomiting)

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19
Q

What is hypokalaemic alkalosis?

A

Extreme lack or loss of K (possibly due to diuretic meds)

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20
Q

What are the formed elements of blood?

A

Erythrocytes (no nuclei)
Leukocytes
Platelets (no nuclei)

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21
Q

Define haematopoiesis

A

formation & dev. of all formed elements via proliferation & differentiation of bone marrow stem cells

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22
Q

Examples of circulating chemical messengers that regulate stem cells to enable specific blood cells to develop

A

erythropoeitin

interleukin-2

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23
Q

T or F - Erythrocytes (RBC) are the most abundant cells in the blood

A

True

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24
Q

7 billion RBC in which animal?

A

cow
pig
dog

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25
Q

10 billion RBC in which animal?

A

horse

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26
Q

11-12 billion RBC in which animal?

A

sheep

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27
Q

Erythrocyte characteristics

A

specialised for O2 transport
shape => larger area:volume -> faster O2 exchange cell membrane; greater H2O uptake due to osmotic swelling without rupture of cell membrane
Shapes & sizes vary (sheep & goats - smallest; dogs - largest)

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28
Q

What is erythropoiesis?

A

Formation of RBC

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29
Q

Where does erythropoiesis occur in the foetus?

A

bone marrow
liver
spleen
lymph nodes

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30
Q

Where does erythropoiesis occur in larger skeleton?

A

red bone marrow - found mainly in flat bones & cancellous (spongy) material of long bones

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31
Q

T or F - In severe blood loss, body converts yellow marrow back to red marrow to increase blood cell production

A

true

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32
Q

What are haematopoietic growth factors (HGF’s)?

A

Cytokines -> influence dev. of particular blood cell types

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33
Q

HGF that stimulates erythrocyte production?

A

erythropoietin (EPO)

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34
Q

Where is EPO released, where does it act, and what does it do?

A

Kidney -> stem cells in bone marrow -> increase prod. of RBC -> increase O2 delivery to kidneys

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35
Q

-ve feedback of EPO by …?

A

RBC’s

36
Q

Draw & learn RBC production

A

slide 25

37
Q

What are the stages of RBC dev?

A

rubriblast -> basophilic rubricyte (day 2) -> polychromatophilic rubricyte (day 3) -> metarubricyte -> reticulocyte -> erythrocyte (day 5-7)

38
Q

What are the 3 specialised pigments that aid RBC’s in transporting O2 & CO2 around the body?

A

haemoglobin (Hb)
carbonic anhydrase
myoglobin (muscle haemoglobin)

39
Q

Characteristics of haemoglobin (Hb)…?

A

1/3 RBC content
contains 4 red porphyrin pigments (heme)
appears reddish when O2 present; blue-purple when O2 not present, acidified or CO2 present

40
Q

How does Hb facilitate O2 & CO2 transport?

A

Each heme group contains Fe atom that combines loosely with O2 molecule -> transports O2 as oxyhaemoglobin & CO2 as carbinohaemoglobin

41
Q

Explain removal of erythrocytes

A

Occurs after 3-4 months in circulation
10% haemolyse in circulation -> cell debris removed by macrophages in liver, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes
RBC’s broken down -> haemoglobin degraded & Fe seperated -> excreted in bile or urine

42
Q

What is haemolysis?

A

Breakdown of RBC’s & release of haemoglobin into plasma

Caused by bacterial toxins, snake venom, blood paracites, hypotonic substances, chemical substances

43
Q

Reddish urine indicates what?

A

haemoglobin in urine (haemoglobinuria)

Caused by: Leptospirosis, tick fever (cattle), perturient haemoglobinuria

44
Q

What is haemoconcentration?

A

low plasma relative to RBC
high [RBC] in circulating blood
Low vit A in pigs - dengue virus

45
Q

Characteristics of leukocytes…?

A 
Less numerous than RBC (~1000:1)
mostly have functions in tissues
circulatory system for transport only
have nucleus & cytoplasm
Only fully functional cells in blood
46
Q

Name the leukocytes

A

Granulocytes - neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

Agranulocytes - monocytes, lymphocytes

47
Q

Granulocytes…

A

formed in red bone marrow
neutrophils 1st line of defense -> site of bacteria via vessel walls & ENGULF bacteria
Number increases when acute infection present
neutrophils greatest no. of WBC’s

48
Q

Granulocytes (eosinophils)…?

A

normally low
increase in certain chronic conditions (eg. parasite infections, allergic conditions); and allergic reactions
primary function - DETOXIFICATION

49
Q

Granulocytes (basophils)…?

A

rare in normal blood
release histamine & heparin
mainly involved in inflammatory reactions in tissue

50
Q

Agranulocytes (monocytes)…?

A

engulf foreign matter (bacteria)
active in less acute infections (TB)
transformed into macrophages

51
Q

Agranulocytes (lymphocytes)…?

A

Form Ab’s in response to Ag’s (basis of vaccination)

High number indicates infection

52
Q

Types of lymphocytes…?

A

B lymphocytes - humoral immunity
T lymphocytes - cell-mediated immunity
Natural Killer NK cells - lyse virus-infected host cells

53
Q

Platelets charachteristics…?

A

rod-shaped oval disks - no nuclei
important in CLOTTING
originate from megakaryocytes - bone marrow (adult mammals)
half diameter RBC’s
9-12 day life span before phagocytosis (spleen)
thrombocytes (non-mammals)

54
Q

3 phases of the blood-clotting cascade…?

A

vascular phase
platelet phase
coagulation phase

55
Q

Vascular phase…?

A

~30 mins
damage -> contraction SM fibres & vasoconstriction (SNS)
other factors & hormones released -> endo cells become sticky

56
Q

Platelet phase…?

A

attach to sticky endo membranes -> platelet plug
KEY SUBSTANCES - von Willebrand factor (protein) & ADP
platelets contain actin & myosin proteins

57
Q

Coagulation phase…?

A

FIBRIN (protein) in plasma -> blood coagulation

Formation of fibrin clot requires sequence of reactions

58
Q

B lymphocytes (B-cells)…?

A

Humoral immunity

transformed -> plasma cells & secrete Ab’s -> destroy (directly/indirectly) foreign material

59
Q

T lymphocytes (T-cells)…?

A

Cell-mediated immunity
T-cells make contact with cells bearing foreign Ag
Types: cytotoxic T-cells -> destroy virus-invaded cells; helper T-cells -> secrete cytokines for humoral response

60
Q

Natural killer (NK) cells…?

A

spontaneously & non-specifically lyse infected host cells

numbers only increase during specific immune response

61
Q

Explain differential White Blood Cell counts

A

Indicates % of each type of WBC in blood sample
Different leukocytes -> different functions & responses to infection or disease
Can be useful for diagnostics
Differentials taken over time useful to evaluate response of animal to infection or disease

62
Q

Platelet functions…?

A

BLOOD CLOTTING -> decrease blood loss from site of injury by adhering to vessel walls & each other -> haemostatic plug -> thrombus (clot) -> occludes opening in vessel

63
Q

What are the sequences of reaction in the coagulation phase of blood clotting?

A

Coagulation cascade
Coag. factors activated via 3 pathways
1. extrinsic - begins outside blood stream in vessel wall due to tissue damage
2. intrinsic - begins inside bloodstream
3. common pathway - extrinsic & intrinsic pathways meet

64
Q

Plasma properties…?

A

55-77% of blood

fluid portion of blood (92% water, 8% other sub’s - mainly proteins, also glucose, lipids, hormones + mineral salts)

65
Q

Organ responsible for maintaining constant proportions of water & other constituents of plasma?

A

Kidneys

66
Q

Role of plasma proteins?

A 
Transport of substances
BP maintenance (altering viscosity of blood)
immunity (gamma globulins)
maintain osmotic pressure of blood
buffer (acid-base balance)
Suspension stability of RBC's
clotting
67
Q

Which molecules & drugs do plasma proteins also transport around the body?

A 
Carrier molecules for:
Nutrients (Ca, P, Fe, Cu, lipids, fat-soluble vit's, AA's)
Hormones (thyroxine, steriods)
Cholesterol
Heme
Enzymes
Barbituates (anaesthetics)
Sulfonamides (type of antibiotic)
68
Q

Name the plasma proteins…

A

Albumin
Globulins
Fibrinogen
others

69
Q

A bit about Albumin…?

A

~60% plasma proteins
MAIN regulator of blood osmotic pressure
bind irreversibly & transport main chemicals in blood (FFA, bilirubin, thyroid hormones, some steroids)

70
Q

A bit about globulins…?

A

~35% plasma proteins
enzymatic functions
Contain gamma globulins stimulated by Ag’s for immune response

71
Q

A bit about fibrinogen…?

A

Synthesised by liver

essential for clotting

72
Q

What is serum?

A

plasma - fibrinogen & most clotting factors

contains antibodies that animal may have formed

73
Q

A bit about lymph…?

A

lymphatic system - extensive network of one-way vessels
Made up of loss of protein & fluid from capillaries
contains lymphocytes, inorganic salts, glucose, proteins, N substances
intestinal lymph - milky coloured
Lymphoid tissue (lymphocytes) - defence against infection

74
Q

A bit about serous fluids…?

A

housed in body cavity (peritonial, pleural & pericardial fluid)
thin film decreases friction between surfaces
inflamm. or infection of serous membranes -> increased prod. of serous fluids causing:
pleutitis, peritonitis, pericarditis

75
Q

What is anaemia?

A
  • Numbers of RBC’s or haemoglobin below normal levels
  • Deficient blood formation (poor nutrition, low Fe, Cu, vit’s, AA’s)
  • Blood loss (wounds, parasites (worms))
76
Q

What causes anaemia at the cellular level?

A
  • Deficient secretions of INTRINSIC FACTOR (stomach) -> low vit B absorption -> pernicious anaemia
  • If blood cells haemolysed faster than new ones can replace them
  • If RBC’s FAIL TO MATURE normally
77
Q

Cascade of events of anaemia…?

A

Reduces O2 carrying capacity of blood -> decreased [RBC] -> decreased blood vicosity -> increased blood flow -> hypoxia at tissue level -> heart stimulated to pump faster to deliver more O2
When animal exercised hard, heart cannot supply enough O2 -> heart efficiency decreases -> may lead to heart failure

78
Q

Blood group classification is based on what?

A

Presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on RBC surface

79
Q

Blood group antigens can be…?

A

proteins
CHO’s
glycoproteins
glycolipids

80
Q

What are human antigens made of in the ABO blood group?

A

Sugars - based on DNA & type of enzymes they have present

81
Q

What are human antigens made of in the rhesus (Rh) blood group?

A

Proteins

82
Q

What is the biological importance of blood groups?

A
  • transports bio. important molecules across red cell membrane
  • receptors of external stimuli & cell adhesion
  • regulators of complement sys. (proteins in blood regulate dev. inflamm.)
  • enzymes
  • anchor red cell membrane to cytoskeleton
  • providers of extracellular CHO matrix -> protects from mechanical damage & microbes
83
Q

How many recognised blood group antigens?

A

285 (245 classified into one of 29 blood group systems)

84
Q

Most common human blood groups?

A 
ABO & Rh D (most commonly recognised)
A
B
AB
O
Rh D-positive
Rh D-negative
85
Q

What are the antigens on RBC’s/antibodies in plasma in different blood types…?

A

Group A - A/anti-B
Group B - B/anti-A
Group AB - A & B/ no Ab’s
Group O - no antigens/anti-A & anti-B

86
Q

Can blood group be changed in individual?

A

Usually same blood group for life
May change with addition or suppression of antigen (infection, malignancy, autoimmune disease)
Bone marrow transplant

ASC171 - Final exam modules (7 decks)

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