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Block 9 - Disease Processes (1) Flashcards

1
Q

What is disease a consequence of?

A

Failed homeostasis

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2
Q

What are the two types of morphological changes?

A

Microscopic changes which eventually turn macroscopic

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3
Q

Which is the acidic and basic dye in the haematocyclin-eosin stain?

A 
Haematocyclin = basic (purple)
Eosin = acidic (pink)
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4
Q

4 main disease targets in a cell?

A

Cytoskeleton, Ionic channels, Membrane, Mitochondria

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5
Q

Define autophagy

A

The cell ‘eats’ itself

Triggered by calcium influx

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6
Q

Define karyorrhexis

A

Large fragments

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7
Q

Define atrophy

A

Decrease in cell size and number

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8
Q

What are the three stages of necrosis?

A

Coagulative –> Colliquative/Liquefaction –> Caesating

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9
Q

Define coagulative necrosis

A

Cell death but structure retained

Pale cytoplasm, decreased nuclei

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10
Q

Define colliquative/liquefaction necrosis

A

Hydrolytic enzymes from dying cells degrade tissue

Fluid-filled cavity of necrotic cells

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11
Q

Define caesating necrosis

A

Accumulation of inflamamtory cells

Structure lost but not fluid

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12
Q

3 structural chromosome abnormalities

A

Break, reattach, inverted incorrectly

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13
Q

Define PLOIDY

A

Additional chromosome

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14
Q

Definer restituation

A

When the opposite DNA strand is used as a template

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15
Q

Define dysplasia

A

Abnormal cell apperance

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16
Q

Define metaplasia

A

The cell differentiates into a different type of cell

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17
Q

Define immunopathology

A

The damage from the immune system becomes more clinically significant than the thing it was defending

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18
Q

Type 2 hypersensitivity:
What antibodies are involved?
Two types of tissue cytotoxicity?
6 examples

A

IgG or IgM

Antibody or complement dependent cytotoxicity

Goodpasture, Myasthenia gravis, Grave’s disease, Rhesus disease, Drug allergies, Drug induced haemolytic anaemia

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19
Q

Type 3 hypersensitivity:
What antibody is involved
3 examples

A

IgG

Arthur’s reaction (vaccination)
Serum sickness
Lupus

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20
Q

Type 4 hypersensitivity:
Explain the primary and secondary response
What is a Hapten?
What class of diseases also come under this?
4 examples

A

Primary: Sensitisation and memory cell production when APC presents Haptens (sensitising agents that bind to self-proteins in the epidermis –> neoantigens)

Secondary: APC with hapten presents to CD4+ cells –> T cell and macrophage activation

Autoimmune diseases

Contact sensitisation, Rheumatoid arthritis, MS, Allergen skin tests

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21
Q

What layer of skin is found in thick skin but not in thin skin?
2 characteristics

A

Stratum lucidium

Thin, transparent layer between the granulosum and corneum

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22
Q

What is different about the stratum corneum and hypodermis in thick skin?

A

Corneum is thicker

Hypodermis has more angualtion

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23
Q

What epithelium is the skin?

A

Stratified squamous

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24
Q

What are the 4 layers of the epidermis?

A

Stratum corneum –> Stratum granulosum –> Stratum spinosum –> Stratum basale

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25
What happens at the stratum corneum? How are the cells arranged? What is the main property of the cells?
Apoptosis Tight junctions form a barrier Lipids and insoluble proteins = hydrophobic
26
What two things are found in the stratum granulosum?
Lamellar bodies: Lipids for hydrophobic barrier | Reratohyalingranules: Proteins which bind to keratin
27
How many layers are in the stratum spinosum? What pigment is present? What protein structures are present?
Many layers Keratin Tonofibrils: Cytoplasmic protein structures that meet at desmosomes
28
What 2 cells are found in the stratum basale?
Single layer of cuboidal cells | Stem cells which proliferate in a 40 day cycle
29
What are the four cells found in the skin? Which is the most abundant? What are their roles?
Keratinocytes - most abundant, more in high layers Langerhans - Dendritic APC Merkel - Fine touch Melanocytes - more in low layers
30
What causes scaling
Imbalance between loss and renewal | Shedding of the cornified layer
31
What causes blisters
Breakage of the cell-cell junctions
32
3 roles of the dermis?
Protection Thermoregulation Touch
33
Papillary dermis: Thickness Type of connective tissue 3 properties
Thinnest Loose connective tissue Fine collagen and elastin Squiggles to provide blood
34
Reticular dermis: Thickness Type of connective tissue 2 properties
Thickest Dense and irregular connective tissue Thick collagen fibre Immune cells and cell appendages
35
How are nails produced? | What is their structure?
Nail root cells in the basal layer proliferate to form the nail matrix Similar to the straum corneum and contains keratin
36
Where is hair produced?
Hair follicle from the acini in the basal layer
37
What is the structure of hair?
Medulla - Cortex - Cuticle
38
What are the three phases of hair growth?
Anagen - Growth phase Catagen - Transition phase Telogen - Resting phase
39
What type of glands are sebaceous glands? What do they secrete? How do they secrete?
Branched acinar Secretes sebum: A lipid which keeps hair soft and waterproof Holocrine secretion: Increased lipid concentration causes rupture of cell membrane
40
What type of glands are eccrine and apocrine glands? Where are they? How do they secrete?
Coiled tubular Reticular dermis Merocrine secretion: Secrete directly onto skin
41
Which glands become active in puberty?
Apocrine
42
What are the 5 stages of healing of deeper wounds?
``` Haemostasis: Fibrin clot Inflammation Fibroplasia: Fibroblasts --> collagen Epithelialisation: Keratinocytes create new layers Remodelling ```
43
2 examples of liquid-filled lesions | Where are they found?
Blister, pustule | Epidermis
44
3 examples of solid lesions | 3 causes
Plaque, nodule, wheal | Increased epidermal thickness, tumour, oedema
45
2 examples of lesions in skin colour | 2 causes
Patch, erythema | Changes in blood flow, melanocytes
46
What causes a callus?
Hyperplasia of the epidermis following pressure/friction
47
What causes an ulcer?
Loss of epidermis and papillary dermis
48
3 requirements of fluid homeostasis
Intact vessels, osmolarity and constant pressure
49
How much blood do you need to lose to go into hypovolemic shock?
20%
50
What are the three stages of haemostasis?
Haemorrhage: Bleeding Thrombosis: Clotting Fibrinolysis: Clot dissolution
51
2 causes of a decrease in plasma proteins
Liver cirrhosis | Malnutrition
52
4 causes of lymphatic obstruction
Parasitic worm Malignancy Surgery Radiation therapy
53
What causes the formation of a thrombus?
Inappropriate haemostasis caused by endothelial injury, abnormal blood flow and hypercoagulability
54
Main component of an arterial and venous thombus
Arterial: Platelets Venous: Fibrin and electrolytes
55
2 reasons why there is an increase in blood flow to a tissue
Hyperaemia | Congestion
56
When does hyperaemia occur? | What are the two types?
A change in environment Reactive: Vasodilation due to decreased oxygen or increased waste Active: Vasodilation due to exercise
57
What is congestion? | What are the two types?
Decreased blood removal due to impaired venous return Local: Vessel compression Systemic: Heart failure, oedema
58
How does shock cause cell injury and damage?
Decreased blood flow (systemic hypoperfusion) due to decreased cardiac output causes decreased nutrients to cells
59
Define cardiogenic shock | 3 examples
Failure of the heart to pump sufficient blood to damage | e.g. MI, Arrhythmia, Pulmonary oedema
60
Define neurogenic shock
CNS damage --> loss of systemic stimulation of blood vessels --> blood pooling
61
Define sepsis
Uncontrolled systemic reaction to the infection causes organ dysfunction
62
Define septic shock
Profound circulatory, cellular and metabolic abnormalities which increase mortality
63
Pathophysiology of sepsis
> Bacteria activate neutrophils and macrophages > Systemic release of cytokines causes systemic vasodilation, hypotension and vascular leakage > Oedema decreases blood pressure more and decreases blood flow to organs, decreasing nutrient exchange > Complement activated > Dysregulation of immune and haemostatic systems causes respiratory distress and multiple organ failure
64
Are parasites eukaryotes or prokaryotes?
Eukaryotes
65
What are the two classes of prokaryotes?
Archaea: Virus and prion | Bacteria
66
3 ways to classify bacteria?
Cell wall Morphology Nutritional and biochemical properties
67
What is found on the peptidoglycan layer?
Tecchoic acid
68
What do you use to stain Gram+ and Gram- bacteria?
Crystal violet Retained in Gram+, lost in Gram - Stain with counterstain Not seen in Gram+ but seen in Gram-
69
Which class of bacteria can make spores?
Gram positive
70
Define microaerophilic
Requires some oxygen but not a lot
71
How do you identify bacteria?
PCR and genome sequencing
72
What are the 4 methods of horizontal gene transfer?
Transformation: DNA released into environment and taken up Transduction: Phage transfers non phage DNA Conjugation: Bacteria have sex Transposons: Genetic units which jump
73
What are the 4 phases of bacterial replication?
1. Lag phase: Bacteria make the right conditions 2. Growth phase: Optimum multiplication 3. Stationary phase: Nutrients decrease (can remain here for a while) 4. Death: Non nutrients
74
What bacteria causes Lyme disease?
Borrella burgdorferi
75
What is in tears which provides a barrier to infection?
Lysozyme
76
Microbe free areas? (7)
Blood, Urine, CSF | Muscles, glands, inner ear, brain
77
What are the three types of pathogen?
Overt/Strict: Disease causing Opportunistic: Causes disease when they end up where they're not supposed to be Faculative: Survives in host normally
78
What is the role of virulence factors?
Facilitate colonisation, growth, spread and immune evasion
79
Give 5 examples of virulence factors and their roles
``` Adhesions: Fimbriae, pili, membrane proteins Flagella: Mobility and penetrate mucin Capsule: Prevents phagocytosis Type 3 secreted molecules Toxins ```
80
What 3 diseases does streptococcus pneumoniae cause?
Pneumonia, Sepsis, Meningitis
81
Give 5 virulence factors of streptococcus pneumoniae
``` Capsule Surface adhesions Secretory IgA protease (cleaves IgA) Neuraminase Spore formation ```
82
``` Endotoxin: Which bacteria release it? How does it react to heat? What does it cause? (2) Toxicity? ```
Gram negative Heat stable Fever, D+V Weak toxicity
83
``` Exotoxin: Which bacteria release it? How does it react to heat? What does it target? Toxicity? Intracellular or extracellular? ```
``` Gram positive and negative Heat fluctuation Specific targets High toxicity Extracellular ```
84
Define toxoid
Inactivated toxin used as a vaccine
85
Give 2 examples of enterotoxins | What do they cause
Cholera and E.coli | Permeability change and D+V
86
``` What type of bacterium is clostridium botulinum? Type of respiration? Spore former or not? Mechanism of entry? 3 clinical uses of botulinum toxin ```
``` Gram positive Anaerobic Spore former Ingestion Bladder, migraine, sweat ```
87
What type of bacterium is lysteria monocytogenes? Where is it found 2 people at increased risk What other disease can it cause?
Gram positive Found in food Pregnancy, immunosuppressed Can cause meningitis
88
What type of bacterium is vibrio cholerae? What type of toxin is it? How does it change the osmotic gradient?
Gram negative Exotoxin Increased adenylate cyclase and cAMP
89
What type of bacterium is salmonella? | How does it cause cell lysis?
Gram negative | Modifies the phagosome pathway
90
Define 'pathogenicity factors'
Extra genome sequences unique to a set of related pathogens
91
What are black holes
Deleted information
92
Give 7 strategies for bacterial immune evasion
> Stay intracellular >Antigen and phage variation (changing immunogenicity) > Molecular mimicry > Modify/block the host immune response (e.g. IgA, protease, Type 3 factors) > Avoid complement activation > Avoid phagocytosis (capsule, anti-phagocytic toxins, resist killing in the phagocytes via enzymes, pH and toxic O2 metabolites) > Inhibit host signalling
93
Give 6 examples of bacteria which are part of the normal flora
``` H. influenzae S. epidermidis S. aureus S. pneumoniae L. species E. coli ```
94
4 roles of the microbiome
Develops the immune system Prevents pathogens colonising (directly competes with them for nutrients and room and indirectly induces the immune system) Metabolises toxins Produce beneficial nutrients
95
What does more species in the microbiome NOT mean?
More genes
96
7 things the microbiome is dependent on
Age - Diet - Environment - Immune response - Lifestyle - Host genetics - Microbial co-adaptation
97
3 reasons why the microbiome can cause infection
Spread into sterile body parts Expand their population Disrupt their normal balance
98
Explain the pathogenesis of C.diff
Microbiome bacteria convert 1 --> 2 bile salts 2 bile salts stop c.diff growth less bacteria mean less 2 bile salts and growth of c.diff
99
What is the technical name for diahorrheoa
Pseudomemranous colitis
100
What type of bacterium is Clostridiumm Difficile? | Why is it hard to combat in hospitals?
Gram positive | It is a spore former
101
Define dysbiosis
Imbalance of the normal gut microbiome composition leading to problems in the host (e.g. metabolism and distribution)
102
Define prebiotics
Non-digestable food which helps the microbiome develop healthily and improves host health
103
Define probiotics
Living, non-pathogenic organisms used as food to improve host health
104
Define selective toxicity
Exploiting differences between prokarytic and eukaryotic cells
105
4 properties of antibiotics
Bacterial selective Kills bacteria (not just inhibits growth) Slow emergence of resistance Narrow spectrum
106
Give 2 examples of narrow spectrum antibiotics
Older penicillins | Macrolides
107
Give 4 examples of broad spectrum antibiotics
Aminoglycosides Synthetic penicillin Quinolones 2nd and 3rd generation Cephlasporins
108
What does antibiotic resistance relate to?
The sensitivity of a bacterial agent at a certain concentration
109
What are the 4 types of acquired bacterial resistance?
Modification of the antibacterial target (e.g. change surface protein shape) Enzymatic inactivation of the antibiotic (e.g. create enzyme to break antibiotic) Limited access of antibiotic (e.g. stop entry/efflux) Bypass pathway
110
Define the MIC | What 3 things does it depend upon?
Minimum concentration of antibacterial agent below which bacteria growth is not inhibited Depends on the species, isolate and drug
111
What are the 3 stages of antibiotic resistance?
Resistant - Intermediate - Sensitive
112
2 methods of beta lactam resistance
Bacteria produce beta-lactamase to degrade the antibiotic | Bacteria alter penicillin binding proteins
113
7 ways that doctors can decrease antibiotic resistance rates?
``` Individual patient Prevent overuse, misuse and abuse Decrease infection risk Improve hygiene Know local guidelines Shortest course possible Single use when possible ```
114
What are the 3 shapes of viruses?
Icosahedral Spherical Filamentous
115
Which virus is it harder to find a vaccination for?
Non-enveloped
116
How is an enveloped virus transmitted?
Droplets
117
What protrudes from the surface of an enveloped virus? | What are their roles?
Protein structures | Adhesion and enzymes
118
2 examples of non-enveloped viruses
Rotavirus | Norovirus
119
3 examples of enveloped viruses
Influenza HIV Ebola
120
What type of genome does norovirus have? | How is it transmitted?
Positive strand RNA | Transmitted though food, water and surfaces
121
What is the genome in: DNA viruses? RNA viruses? Reteroviruses?
DNA viruses: single or double strand DNA RNA viruses: single or double strand RNA Reteroviruses: single strand RNA / double strand DNA
122
What 3 proteins do viruses make?
Proteins for new viruses Enzymes for genome replication Proteins to interfere with the immune response
123
5 examples of negative single strand RNA viruses | Where is their lifecycle?
``` Influenza Mumps Measles Ebola Rabies ``` Outside the nucleus
124
3 examples of positive single strand RNA viruses | Where is their lifecycle?
Poliovirus Dengue Hepatitis C Outside the nucleus
125
2 examples of double strand DNA viruses | Where is their lifecycle?
Rotavirus Gastroenteritis Outside the nucleus
126
Define burst size
Yield of the infectious virus/cell
127
What does the response to the virus depend upon?
The type of cell infected (e.g. liver or skin)
128
Give 2 examples of DNA viruses Where is their lifecycle? How do they replicate?
Herpes Epstein-Barr Inside the nucleus Use normal cell functions to assemble the virus in the nucleus and release it by cell lysis
129
Give 3 classes of viral drugs
Nucleoside analogues (inhibit polymerase) Nucleoside antimetabolite Protease and fusion inhibitors
130
Define lytic infection
Latent/persistant
131
2 ways by which viruses can cause cancer
Introduction of viral oncogenes | Transcribing/translating proteins which have never been used before
132
Give an example of a reterovirus Where is its lifecycle? How do they replicate?
HIV Inside the nucleus Viral genome integrates with DNA, reverse transcriptase used and virus packaged in cytoplasm then released by budding
133
What are the 6 main ways of virus transmission
``` Respiratory Zoonoses (animal) Enteric Contact Percutaneous Mother - Child ```
134
What do viruses not infect which bacteria do?
Wounds
135
Give 5 examples of respiratory viruses
``` Flu RSV Coranovirus Rhinovirus Parainfluenza ```
136
Give 3 examples of rash causing diseases
Measles Rubella Chickenpox
137
Give 2 examples of respiratory viruses transmitted by saliva
Epstein-Barr | CMV
138
Give 3 examples of methods by which viruses can be transmitted by animals
Ingestion of meat e.g. Hepatitis E Bites e.g. Rabies Insects e.g. Mosquitos or Ticks (tick bourne encephalitis)
139
Define arbovirus
Virus transmitted by insects
140
Give 5 examples of viruses transmitted by the faecal-oral route
``` Hepatitis A Hepatitis E Norovirus Rotavirus Gastroenteritis ```
141
Give 3 examples of contact viruses | How are they actually transmitted?
HIV (mucosal) Herpes simplex (mucosal) HPV (skin)
142
3 examples of viruses transmitted during pregnancy | 3 examples of viruses transmitted during birth
CMV, Rubella, Varicella | HIV, Hepatitis B, Herpes simplex
143
3 methods of percutaneous tranmission
Arbovirus Mother - baby Injection
144
Why is it hard to make anti-viral drugs
Hard without host damage
145
Give 3 prevention methods for viruses
Physical e.g. condoms and DEET Passive e.g. antibodies Active e.g. vaccination
146
What part of the immune system less important for viruses?
Adaptive
147
What leads to the production of interferons? | How do they work?
Fibroblasts and leukocytes produce them Stimulate genes --> Host restriction factors --> NK, macrophages, cytokines
148
What leads to the production of lymphocytes? | How do they work?
Early: antigens presented by MHC1 --> CD8+ Late: B cells produce IgM and IgG
149
What is the role of IgM?
Aggregation in the initial response
150
What is the role of IgG?
Neutralising in the later response | Involved in the secondary infection (immunity)
151
A clinical sign of a reactivated latent virus?
Specific T cells to the virus
152
Is HIV latent?
No
153
What inflammatory cells are seen in chronic inflammation?
Lymphocyte, Macrophage, Plasma cells
154
What is the difference between exudate and pus?
Exudate: Increased fluid with plasma proteins Pus: Exudate with dying cells and bacteria
155
Explain the process of the C3 and C5 inflammatory cascade
Pathogen binds to C3 causing release of histamine and chemoattractant C3a and C5a: cell recruitment C3b: interaction C5a: cascade producing the membrane attack complex
156
Give 3 examples of cell derived inflammatory mediators What do they release? 2 other roles of inflammatory cells
Platelets --> serotonin Mast cells and basophils --> histamine Inflammatory cells --> Lymphokines and monokines Inflammatory cells also activate arachidonic acid metabolites and platelet activating factor
157
3 examples of plasma derived inflammatory mediators | What system do they arise from?
Kinin (kallikrenin system) D-dimers/fibrin degradation products (clotting and fibrinolytic system) Complement compnents (complement system)
158
What 3 things produce Hageman factor (XII)
Plasmin from the fibrinolytic system XI from the clotting system Kallikrenin system
159
What are the two pathways which arachidonic acid is a precursor to? What do these pathways produce? What is the role of them?
Cyclo-oxygenase pathway produces prostaglandins Prostacyclin --> platelet aggregation and vasodilation Thromboxane --> platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction Lipo-oxygenase pathway produces leukotrines Increase vascular permeability, vasoconstrict, chemotaxis, neutrophil adhesion and vasodilation
160
What are 'acute phase reactions' | 9 examples
Systemic effects of acute inflammation e.g. fever, rigors, tachycardia, decreased bp, reduced appetite, vomiting, aching, skeletal weakness, altered liver metabolism
161
What are the 5 stages of tissue repair after inflammation?
Congestion: Tissue filled with proteins and fibrin (firm) Consolidation: Inflammatory cells infiltrate (red hepatization) Grey hepatization: Macrophages digest neutrophils and fibrin Resolution: Restoration of tissue Repair/reorganisation: Decreased structural integrity forms a scar
162
What causes fever?
Pyrogens reset the temperature control system in the hypothalamus
163
How does the HPA axis cause illness?
Alters metabolism
164
Give 5 diseases where there is chronic inflammation
Arthritis, Alzheimers, Atherosclerosis, Dementia, Depression
165
Give 4 types of chronic inflammation
Chronic suppurative Autoimmune Non-specific Granulomatous
166
Explain what happens in chronic suppurative inflammation Why is it also acute? Why is it hard to treat? 2 examples
Neutrophils are walled off by fibrin and surrounded by macrophages and fibroblasts Acute inflammation due to neutrophils but a chronic condition Hard to treat with antibiotics as poor blood supply --> surgery e.g. Abscess or osteomyelitis
167
What cell indicates an inflammatory condition
Eosinophils
168
When does non-specific inflammation occur? What is the characteristic of it? What 2 cells does it contain?
After the initial inflammation due to a specific infection No structure or obvious drive Plasma cells and lymphocytes
169
Explain what gramulomatous is and what happens What causes more damage? Two examples of this
The immune systems response to agents which hare hard to destroy Granulomas form around the agent The host immune response causes more damage TB, Chron's
170
Give two ways how macrophages can have increased numbers of nuclei
Fusion of many | Replication without cytokinesis
171
What is the difference between Langerhan giant and Touton giant cells Which is caused by chronic measles?
Langerhan giant: Nuclei in a line | Touton giant: Nuclei in a circle (measles)
172
What is the morphology of Warthin-Finkeldey cells? | What are they caused by?
Small dots in the nuclei or cytoplasm | Chronic measles
173
What does immunostaining identify? | How does it work?
Identifies cells by molecules not morphology | Uses histochemistry and antibody probes to make coloured images
174
What are the 4 receptors involved in the HIV infection?
gp120 (on HIV) binds to the CD4 receptor then the CCR5 co-receptor (on the host) gp41 is also found on HIV
175
What are the 3 enzymes in HIV?
Reverse transcriptase Integrase Protease
176
What are the two stages of the HIV infection?
Primary infection: Virus localised at infection site then spread to lymph nodes causing CD4+ infection (esp in gut) Secondary infection: Defects in gut mucus causes apoptosis and bystander killing of non-infected CD4+
177
Give 5 stereotypical HIV infections
Karposi's sarcoma: Cancer caused by herpes (red nodules) Pneumocytes pneumonia: Thick infiltrates in lungs CNS toxoplasmosis CMV retinitis: Necrosis and bleeding Pneumocystis jiroveci: Fungus cysts in the alveoli
178
Treatment of pneumcystis jiroveci?
IV Trimethoprim Sulphaethoxazole Steroids
179
How are HIV resistance patterns measured?
PCR creates a profile which is compared to a database
180
Define quasi-species
Easily resistant as mutations are high
181
Define epitope
Proteins which initiate immune response | B and T cells can discriminate between these
182
Which antibodies are transferred via the mothers placenta and milk?
``` Placenta = IgG Milk = IgA ```
183
What are the two methods of giving a living vaccination
``` Naturally weakened (giving a related strain) Artificially weakened ```
184
What is the genome of the smallpox virus?
Double strand DNA virus
185
What is the genome of the polio virus?
Positive single strand RNA virus
186
``` Which vaccination (dead or alive) is better for transport? Which vaccination (dead or alive) is safer? (for who) Which vaccination (dead or alive) needs a booster? Which vaccination (dead or alive) is inactivated/attenuated? Which vaccination (dead or alive) produces which antibodies? ```
Dead is more stable for transport Dead is safer for immunodeficient Dead needs a booster Dead is inactivated but living is attenuated Dead produces IgG but living produces IgG and IgA
187
Define a subunit vaccination | What do they need?
Made from components of an organism | Need an adjuvant (increases the immune response)
188
2 reasons why there is not a vaccination for HIV?
Too many people with it | It cannot leave your body
189
Are fungi acellular or multicellular?
Both
190
How does mould grow?
Growth by filaments (hyphae) - asexual | Growth by spores - sexual
191
What is the most common yeast to cause human infection?
Candida albicans
192
How does yeast grow?
Reproduces by budding | Grows by pseudo-hyphae
193
Where does yeast live?
Lives in mucus membranes | Normal flora of the mouth and female GU tract
194
What is the prefix for diamorphic fungi?
Coccidiodes
195
How are diamorphic infections acquired? | What are the two stages of the infection?
Through spores Early infection can last a while Late can cause chronic lung infection and spread to organs
196
Define mycotoxins
Byproducts of fungi on food | Causes neurological, renal and hepatic problems
197
Define ergotism
Poisoning by eating food contaminated with an ergot
198
Give 2 other examples of superficial mycoses
Tinea pedia: Athlete's foot | Baby's bottom: urea damages the skin so fungi can easily penetrate
199
Define geophilic Define zoophilic Define anthrophilic
Geophilic: soil Zoophilic: animal Anthrophilic: insect
200
Explain the four levels of fungal infection?
Superficial mycoses: Ringworm/Tinea Subcutaneous mycoses: Fungus invades bone, muscles, nerves and vessels --> amputation Deep/systemic mycoses: Inhalation of spores --> blood Mucormycoses: Brain
201
How do you diagnose fungal infections?
Yeast: Microscopy on culture plates (fast), PCR and antigen Mould: Culture plates (slow), Antigen tests, Radio and histopathology
202
What temperature do you have conscious intelligence?
35-40C
203
What is the most reliable measure of temperature? | When is it used?
Oesophagus | ICU/Operations
204
What temperature do we measure?
CORE temperature
205
Why do elderly people struggle to shiver?
It requires increased oxygen and many have | pneumonia
206
Where in the body are temperature receptors found?
Conscious: Skin Subconscious: Organs, GI tract, Great veins, Hypothalamus
207
What are the two pain neurones?
``` A delta (myelinated) C (unmyelinated) ```
208
What branch of the nervous system causes piloerection?
Sympathetic system
209
What are the two neuroendocrine controls of temperature?
Catecholamines --> increased metabolic rate --> heat increase Thyroxine
210
What does acclimatisation do to the production of sweat? | Why is this a problem?
Increases production | Huge sodium loss
211
Define hypothermia | When is it severe?
Below 35C | Severe below 28C
212
Give an active treatment of hypo/hyperthermia?
Cardiac bypass to warm/cool the blood
213
Define PUO
Pyrexia of Unknown Origin

Medicine - Year 2 (19 decks)

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