Bismarck's Alliance System 1879-1890 Flashcards
Explain German unification
a. The defeat of Austria in 1866, then France in 1871 by Prussia shaped international relations
b. Before ‘Germany’ there was a loose confederation of 39 German states, dominated by Prussia and Austria, rivalry between the two erupted in 1866 leading to war, leading to the North German Confederation
c. This was a powerful new German state dominated by Prussia, could change the European power balance
d. France therefore determined to veto any move to complete German unification by Prussia and in 1870 declared war
e. French defeat in 1871 led to the creation of the German Empire, its birth was proclaimed in the Palace of Versailles’ hall of mirrors
f. In May the war ended with the Treaty of Frankfurt, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, and an indemnity was to be paid after which the Prussian army of occupation would withdraw from Northern France
g. The creation of the German Empire marked a real shift in the balance of power, Disraeli noted it ‘a greater political event than the French revolution’
h. Germany possessed the most formidable military force, based on growing economic strength
i. Huge supplies of iron ore and coal in the Ruhr and Upper Silesia, and an integrated economy thanks to railway growth, firms such as Krupp also established
j. Sooner or later France would recover and seek to reverse its defeat of 1871, if Germany used her power to inspire fear France would gain allies and encircle Germany
k. Count Otto von Bismarck, German Chancellor knew this, he sought to:
i. Isolate France
ii. Reassure Britain, Austria and Russia that Germany was a ‘satiated’ state
Explain the Balkans and the League of the Three Emperors
a. Bismarck knew Germany might become involved in an Austro-Russian war over the Balkans due to the declining Ottoman Empire and Turkish power
b. The Balkans were strategically important to Russia and to Austria
i. Russia could not allow a hostile power to control the shores of the Black Sea and the straits of the Bospherous and Dardanelles which were the main access to the Mediterranean
ii. Austria did not want the emergence of independent Balkan States which would block future expansion into the area and attract Slav support in its own Empire, particularly from the Hungarians
c. Britain was also concerned about the Russian threat to its position in the Mediterranean and India, and did not want her to fill the Turk power vacuum
d. Both Russia and Austria attempted to enlist Germany as an ally, Bismarck avoided any unilateral commitment by proposing the League of the Three Emperors, in a crisis they would only consult with each other
The Eastern Crisis 1875-1888
a. The advantage for Germany of the League of the Three Emperors was that it isolated France and enabled Germany to not choose between the two powers
b. It was in many ways a model for German policy until 1890
c. The eruption of the great eastern crisis forced Germany to choose though, even though he spent the next decade attempting to reunite these powers
d. The crisis began in July 1875 with a revolt against Turkish rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B+H)
e. Within a year it spread to Bulgaria, and Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, contrary to expectation the Turks defeated the Serbs and stabilised the situation
f. The Eastern crisis now entered a dangerous phase as the Russian government would not tolerate Turkey re-establishing itself in the Balkans
g. Initially Russia did obtain Austrian consent to drive the Turks out of the Balkans, provided it did not set up a large pro-Russian Bulgaria and allowed Austria to occupy B+H
h. Russia troops advanced on Constantinople, Turkey held out until January 1878 but was then forced to sign a peace treaty which, contrary to all assurances, set up a large and apparently pro-Russian Bulgaria
i. This triggered a major international crisis which could have lead to war between Russia and Austria which would be backed by Britain
j. It opened up the scenario Bismarck dreaded:
i. France would be able to offer assistance to one of the belligerents in return for a promise to revise the Treaty of Frankfurt
Explain the Berlin Congress 1878
a. Facing Eastern crisis Bismarck agreed to host, at Austria’s suggestion, a congress at Berlin
b. Bismarck played the role of ‘honest broker’ dominating negotiations
c. Yet however he tried to remain neutral he presided over a Congress which stripped Russia of many of its gains from the Turkish war, making her resentful of Germany’s ‘false friendship’
d. Under Bismarck’s skilful chairmanship the congress managed to find at least temporary solutions to the problems of the Balkans:
i. Bulgaria was broken up into three major parts:
1. The largest became the core state of Bulgaria (a self-governing principality under Turkish control) the Russians were to control its administration for nine months until a new government could be formed
2. The second part, Eastern Rumelia, was to be placed under a Turkish governor, although a commission of European powers was to draw up a reform programme for him to introduce
3. The rest of Bulgaria was returned to Turkish control
ii. The three Balkan states of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained complete independence but lost some of the land given to the by the Russians
iii. Austria was given the right to occupy, but not annex, B+H and to station troops in the Novi Pazar region between Serbia and Montenegro
iv. Britain was permitted to occupy Cyprus, and France was encouraged eventually to move into Tunisia
Explain the Austro-German Dual Alliance 1879
a. Congress of Berlin deteriorated Russo-German Relations
b. July 1879 Germany introduced grain tariffs, 75% of Russian exports were grain
c. Bismarck would have preferred to renew the Three Emperor’s League, but with mounting Russian hostility this was unviable
d. Instead he considered a defensive alliance with Austria Germany could not tolerate the defeat of Austria by Russia
e. Consequently on 7 October 1879 the Dual Alliance was signed:
i. Should one power be attacked by Russia, the other would come to its rescue with ‘the whole war strength’ of its empire
ii. If one were attacked by any other power its ally would adopt a neutral but friendly attitude
iii. The treaty was to last five years but could be renewed
iv. It was secret, but in the event of Russian threats it would be leaked to the Tsar to deter further action by him
f. This gave Germany considerable influence over Austrian foreign policy, Bismarck was to exploit this to ensure Vienna did not provoke a war with Russia
g. He hoped the treaty’s mere existence, despite its secrecy, would force Russia back into negotiations with Germany and Austria
h. Would further isolate France
Explain the Alliance of the Three Emperors 1873
a. Bismarck’s calculation s proved correct, although Pan Slav nationalists urged Tsar Alexander II to ally with France and attack Austria, the Russian foreign office doubted France’s ability to offer assistance in the Balkans and persuaded the Tsar to open negotiations with Germany
b. Talks began with Bismarck in January 1980, the Russians wanted an agreement recognising their gains in the Balkans and close the Straits to the British Navy
c. Bismarck was not ready to sign with Russia unless Austria was involved, at first Austria still hoped to co-operate with Britain against Russia, but with Disraeli’s electoral defeat in 1880 Britain became markedly less hostile to Russia
d. Under German pressure, Vienna reluctantly agreed to accept a new Three Emperors League, the Three Emperor’s Alliance was signed with Russia on 18 June 1881:
i. A-H and Germany agreed the Straits should be closed to warships of all nations, this stopped the threat of Britain entering the Black Sea
ii. Austria conceded the eventual reunification of Bulgaria, Russia agreed at some time Austria would be able to annex B-H
iii. If a member of the League found itself at war with a fourth power, unless Turkey, the other two powers would remain neutral
iv. There was to be no further changes in the Turkish Empire without the consent of the three empires
v. The treaty was in the first instance to last three years
e. The Treaty did not provide any long term solution to Austro-Russian rivalry in the Balkans, but did temporarily reduce friction
Explain the Triple Alliance 1882
a. Despite the Three Emperor’s Alliance Russian Balkan policy remained unpredictable, Tsar Alexander III continued to receive advice from Pan Slav leaders were beginning to establish contacts with Russian sympathisers in France’s army and media
b. Bismarck responded by strengthening the Austro German Dual Alliance, he first expanded it into a Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882
c. Since Austria controlled much of Northern Italy, and in 1859 and again in 1866 had fought to prevent its unification, the Italians had seen Austria as hostile
d. It also had claims to the Italian speaking Tyrol and Trieste, which were Austria’s
e. However the French occupation of Tunis in 1881 which was in the Italian sphere of interest caused Italy to propose an alliance with Austria, Bismarck immediately suggested extending it into a Triple Alliance:
i. Both the central powers were now committed to support Italy in the unlikely chance of French attack
ii. Italy would help them only if they were attacked by two other powers (e.g. France and Russia)
f. The real German gain was that if war broke out with Russia, Austria would now no longer have to keep troops on its Italian border in case of a surprise attack
g. Austria’s position was then further strengthened by an alliance with Serbia in June 1882 and with Romania in 1883 which Germany joined as a defensive alliance against Russia
h. Simultaneously, Bismarck strengthened the influence of the pro-German ministers in the Russian government by both refusing demands at home for further rises in tariffs, which would damage Russian trade, and encouraging German banks to finance Russian loans, the Tsar agreed to renew the Three Emperors Treaty
i. Bismarck noted ‘in a system of five great powers, one should aim to be in the party of three’
j. Bismarck still sceptical of Italy but wanted to further isolate France, Austria would not have to keep troops on the Italian border in case of Russian war
Explain Anglo-French involvement in Egypt
a. Since Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798 the French considered Egypt as an area of special interest, a self-governing territory within the Turkish Empire
b. The Suez canal opened in 1869 was built by a French company, A.J.P Taylor revolutionised the ‘geography of world power’ and it rapidly became a key link with British communication in India
c. In 1875 Britain became the majority shareholder in the canal when it bought 40% of the shares from the Khedive
d. April 1876, Egypt went bankrupt and could no longer pay the interest on the money lent by European investors, Britain and France agreed to take joint control of Egyptian finances
e. For 5 years they co-operated amicably but problems arose with a nationalist uprising by Egyptian army officers, threatening the canal’s security
f. Initially France was ready to send troops with Britain to occupy the zone, but at the last minute the French parliament vetoed the dispatch leaving Britain to restore order
g. The nationalists were subsequently defeated in September 1882
h. The British had now become the masters of Egypt, and despite assuring they would leave once order was restored they did not until 1922
i. British action in 1882 infuriated the French and made cooperation impossible for 20 years
j. Illogically the French felt humiliated and cheated by Britain, they saw the British apparently in permanent control of a key Turkish territory in their sphere of interest
Explain Germany’s exploitation of the Anglo-French quarrel over Egypt
a. Bismarck made no secret that he wished to encourage France to seek compensation for losing Alsace Lorraine by building an African colonial Empire
i. 1880 to French ambassador “I want you to take your eyes away from Metz and Strasbourg by helping you find satisfaction elsewhere”
b. This would distract France from seeking revenge against Germany and create tension with the other colonial powers
c. Simultaneously Bismarck could exploit Britain’s isolation to squeeze confessions and satisfy Germany’s growing demand for colonies
i. To German ambassador in London “England can secure for herself the continuance of our active support for her political interests through sacrifices she would hardly feel”
d. In 1884 the German government, to protect German trading interests and forestall British claims, annexed territory in SW Africa, the Cameroons, Togoland and New Guinea
e. The following year, Germany and France were able to co-operate and override British objections to calling an international conference in Berlin to decide on the future of a huge belt in Africa from the Atlantic to the Indian ocean
f. Relations massively improved, the French PM Jules Ferry France no longer “the Cinderella of European politics”
Explain the end of Franco German cooperation
a. Early 1885 the cost of the French military campaign to colonies Indo-China was becoming unpopular with the French public
b. When news broke the French had been pushed out of Lang-Son riots broke out in Paris, and the Ferry government fell
c. Over summer the new government reverted to anti-German policy, October the PM Louis Freycinet was forced to accept as minister of war the charismatic and fiercely nationalistic General Boulanger, who believed he must prepare for German war
d. He became a cult figure for extreme nationalist League of Patriots and much to the alarm of Bismarck seemed like he might seize power and become a dictator
e. The German army was confident it could defeat France, but doubtful of whether France could now be dealt with in isolation
f. French efforts to establish closer relations with Russia were powerfully helped by the Eruption of the Bulgarian crisis, briefly in the autumn of 1886 it looked as if a Franco-Russian Alliance directed against Germany might be possible
What happened in the Bulgarian crisis 1879
a. At the Berlin Congress it was agreed that Russia should administer rump Bulgaria for a period of nine months before handing over to an elected ruler, who would administer it as a self-governing territory within the Turkish Empire
b. April 1879, when Prince Battenberg, the nephew of the Tsar, was elected Prince of Bulgaria, the Russians hoped at first that they would effectively be able to dominate the new government behind the scenes
c. Tension rapidly developed between Alexander and his Russian advisors, September 1883, he asserted his own independence by expelling two key Russian officials
d. The Russians were determined to removed Alexander, but in September 1885 his position appeared to be strengthened when a revolt broke out in Eastern Rumelia, resulted in unification with Bulgaria
e. The Russians accepted a compromise proposed by Britain where the two states would technically remain separated, under one ruler
f. They were not ready to tolerate Alexander as that ruler however, August 1886 the Russians had him kidnapped and forced him to abdicate
g. Even then the Bulgarian parliament refused to accept the Russian candidate, General Ernroth as its ruler and instead in July 1887 voted for Prince Ferdinand of Coburg, who was born in Vienna and served in the Austrian army
Explain the international impact of the Bulgarian crisis
a. Alexander’s kidnapping revived British fear of Russian’s intention of taking over Bulgaria
b. Austrian Foreign Minister made it clear in November 1886 that ‘even a temporary single-handed occupation of Bulgaria by foreign troops, without the previous consent of Turkey and the other powers would be a violation of the treaties, which in our opinion is not admissible’
c. Meanwhile in Berlin, the Russian ambassador told Bismarck that ‘It is absolutely necessary that we should make Austria disappear from the map of Europe’
d. The League of the Three Emperors was visibly falling apart, war between Russia and Austria now seemed possible and Austria and Britain both looked to Berlin to take the lead against Russia, but Bismarck was determined not to be pushed into confrontation, especially at the very time that Boulanger was urging a war of revenge against Germany
e. He attempted to restrain both Austria and Russia, who he described as ‘two savage dogs’
f. Bismarck again made it clear to his Austria allies that Germany would not be dragged into war against Russia
g. On the other hand he was not prepared to stand back and see Austria defeated by Russia
h. To reconcile two often conflicting objectives he pursued his traditional policy of strengthening Austria while at the same time reassuring Russia of Germany’s peaceful intentions
i. Bismarck aimed to deter Russian expansion into the Balkans by encouraging Britain, Italy and Austria Hungary to negotiate the First Mediterranean Agreement in February 1887, this provided for the maintenance of the status quo in the Mediterranean, including the Adriatic and Aegean Seas
j. He hoped that the agreement would encourage these three powers to stand up to Russia and convince Tsar Alexander that only though negotiations with Berlin could a compromise over Bulgaria be arranged
Explain the Reinsurance Treaty 1887
a. Improvement in Russo-German relations was dependent on the outcome of the struggle to influence the Tsar which was waged between the Pan Slavs and the traditionally pro-German officials of the Russian Foreign Office
b. March 1997 Tsar Alexander III finally became impatient with the increasingly outspoken attempts of the Pan Slavs to influence his foreign policy and rejected their demands for a break with Germany
c. He still refused, however, to follow the advice of his Foreign Minister, to renew the Three Emperors’ Treaty of 1881, but he did agree to negotiate a secret three year agreement with Germany, which was signed on 18 June 1887:
i. Both Empires to be neutral in a war fought against a third power unless Germany attacked France, or Russia attacked Austria
ii. Germany recognised the rights ‘historically acquired’ by Russia in the Balkans, particularly in Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia
iii. Turkey was not to open the Straits to the navy of a power hostile to Russia-Britain. If the Straits were opened Germany and Russia would regard it as hostility
d. In his attempt to reconcile Austria and Russia, Bismarck had effectively created two contradictory diplomatic systems
e. The Reinsurance Treaty promised Russia German backing at the Straits and in Bulgaria, while the Mediterranean Agreement, the negotiation of which was encouraged by Bismarck, supported Austria by encouraging the territorial status quo
Explain the impact of the Bulgarian crisis on Franco-German relations
a. Bismarck’s ultimate fear was that if an Austro-Russian war over Bulgaria broke out, Germany would face a war on two fronts
b. Throughout 1886 there was growing support in France for a war of revenge, in 1887 popular excitement in both Germany and France reached fever pitch, when a French frontier official was arrested by German frontier guards
c. Tempers cooled, however when it was discovered that he had in fact been invited across the frontier to discuss official business, and Bismarck intervened personally to order his release
d. In May relations with Germany began to improve when Boulanger, as a result of a change in government resigned as War Minister
e. While concentrating mainly on defusing the Bulgarian crisis, Bismarck was also able to successfully isolate France in Western Europe
f. The Triple Alliance was renewed in February 1887 ad an Italian-Spanish Agreement was signed aiming at preventing French colonial expansion in North Africa
g. By May 1887, France, as William Lager observed, was ‘completely hedged about’
Explain the aftermath of the Bulgarian crisis
a. The Reinsurance Treaty did not immediately calm the Balkan tensions
b. The election of Prince Ferdinand of Coburg to the Bulgarian throne in July 1887 was regarded by the Russians as an Austrian Conspiracy
c. Once again the Pan Slavs whipped up a press campaign against Germany, which was accused of secretly supporting Austria
d. In the Autumn the Russians carried out large scale troop manoeuvres on Germany’s eastern borders and, so it seemed, began to prepare to advance into Bulgaria, to stop this, Bismarck very effectively used financial pressure
e. November 1887, the German government stopped the Reichsbank from accepting Russian bonds as collateral security for loans raised in Germany
f. This financial pressure had very serious economic consequences for Russia as Germany was the source of most its foreign loans
g. Russia as plunged into financial chaos which effectively prevented it from occupying Bulgaria or risking war with Austria
h. December, Bismarck again contrary to the spirit o the Reinsurance Treaty further strengthened the position of Austria by persuading Britain and Italy to conclude with it a second Mediterranean Agreement aimed at keeping Russia out of Bulgaria and Turkey
i. These measures successfully deterred the Russians from invading Bulgaria, but they continued to undermine Ferdinand of Coburg
j. They also turned to France for the loans which the Germans were no longer ready to finance
k. Inevitably, this strengthened Franco-Russian relations, but neither side was yet ready to conclude an alliance
