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Bisc 160 > Bisc 162 Exam 4 > Flashcards

Bisc 162 Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two innovations in plants?

A

seeds and pollens
- pollens increase reproductive opportunities
- seeds provide secure structure

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2
Q

what is pollination?

A

arrival of pollen at appropriate landing point -> make pollen tube

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3
Q

how are seeds formed?

A

male gametophyte (microgametophyte) and female (macrogametophyte)
- formed on microsporangia (microspore) -> multicellular male gametophyte (pollen) covered in sporopollenin
- mega doesn’t shed -> only 1 meiotic product survive -> multicellular camel gametophyte surrounded by integument
- megasporangium + integument = ovule -> seed after fertilization

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4
Q

how does the seed contain tissue from 3 generations?

A

integument, megasporangium, and embryo

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5
Q

what are the synapomorphies of angiosperms?

A

flowers, fruits, ovules & seeds enclosed in carpel (prevent self-fertilization), highly reduced gametophyte, germination of pollen on stigma, double fertilization, endosperm, and phloem with companion cells

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6
Q

what are the structure bearing micro and mega?

A

micro= stamen (filament + anther)
mega= carpels (ovary + style + stigma) -> 2 or more fused or 1 carpel is pistil

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7
Q

what are the special leaves?

A

inner= petals (corolla)
outer= sepals (calyx)

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8
Q

what are the different types of flowers?

A

function mega + micro is perfect (monoecious)
only one functional in flower is imperfect (dioecious)

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9
Q

what is double fertilization?

A

2 male gametes in single male gametophyte -> one sperm nucleus combine with egg and other combine with 2 other haploid nucleus to form triploid nucleus that makes endosperm
- have one or two cotyledons (seed leaves) which are absorptive organs that take up endosperm or become photosynthetic

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10
Q

what are fruits used for and the different types?

A

fruits aid in seed dispersal
- simple fruit develop from single carpel/several fused (plum or cherry)
- aggregated fruit develop from several separate carpel of single flower (raspberry)
- multiple fruits form from clusters of flowers (inflorescence) -> pineapples and figs
- accessory fruits derived from parts in addition to carpel and seeds (apples, bears, and strawberries)

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11
Q

what are the different to sexual reproduction of plants?

A
  1. cells that form gametes determined by environment
  2. meiosis produce spores
  3. multicellular sporophyte and gametophyte
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12
Q

what is the female gametophyte?

A

each called embryo sac and develop inside ovule
- of 4 haploid megaspores, 3 undergo apoptosis -> remaining undergo 3 mitotic division producing 8 haploid nuclei make 7 celled female gametophyte 8 nuclei (1 egg, 2 synergids, 3 antipodal, and 2 polar nuclei)

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13
Q

what is the male gametophyte?

A

mitotic product of male each undergo mitotic division -> 2 celled pollen grain
1. generative cell provide 2 sperm by mitosis
2. tube cell forms pollen tube

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14
Q

how does flowering control pollination/pollen tube growth?

A
  1. physical separation of gametophyte
  2. genetic self-incompatibility
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15
Q

what does the 3N do?

A

undergo mitotic division to make endosperm (nutrients, energy, and anabolic building blocks)
- remaining cells (antipodal, synergids, and pollen tube) disintegrate

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16
Q

what is absorptive heterotrophy?

A

secrete digestive enzymes to break down food in environment & absorb it through cell membrane
- fungi are saprobes (dead matter), parasitic, or mutualistic

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17
Q

what clade are choanoflagellates, fungi, and animals form?

A

form opisthokonts -> flagella present at some point posterior
- synapomorphy of fungi is absorptive heterotrophy & chitin (nitrogen structural polysaccharide) in cell wall

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18
Q

what is yeast?

A

unicellular, free-living fungi (not taxonomic group but rather lifestyle that evolved multiple times)
- live in liquid/moist environment & absorb nutrients directly across cell surfaces

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19
Q

what is multicellular fungi?

A

the body of the fungi is mycelium and the individual filaments known as hyphae
- some hyphae subdivided into cell-like compartments with complete wall (septa or septet) and if there is no division = coenocytic

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20
Q

what are rhizoids?

A

modified hypha that anchor some fungi to their substrate (doesn’t absorb so not like plants)

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21
Q

what are saprobic fungi critical for?

A

critical to planetary carbon cycle -> break down cellulose, lignin, and certain
- vast peat swamps acidified the water because decomposers absent -> peat turned into coal

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22
Q

what are mycologist?

A

biologist who study fungi
- determined b/w facultative parasite (can grow independently from host) and obligate parasite

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23
Q

what are parasitic fungi?

A

plants and insects are common host of parasitic -> for plants - some create haustoria (branching projection through cell wall into living plant cell to absorb nutrients)
- there some pathogenic: fungi coming in with AIDS, amphibian decline, and plant pathogens

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24
Q

what are predator fungi?

A

some live where lots of carbon but little nitrogen (wood) -> hypha secrete sticky substance/constricting rings for nematodes

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25
what is the difference between symbiotic and mutualism?
symbiotic: partners live in close, permanent contact with each other mutualism: relationship benefits both of them
26
what are lichen?
made of photosynthetic alga/cyanobacteria, fungi, and yeast (recent) - found that lichen fungi are parasitic to photosynthetic partner
27
what are the 3 different bodies of lichen?
- crutose (crust like) adhere tightly to substrate - fructiose are highly branched and grow upward like shrub/hang in long strands from tree branches or rocks - foliose (leafy) attach loosely and grow parallel to substrate
28
how do lichen reproduce?
by fragmentation of vegetative body (thallus), soredia (one/few photosynthetic with fungi), or spores (w/o photosynthetic partner)
29
what are the different types of mycorrhizae fungi?
- ectomycorrhizae: fungi wrap around root tip but doesn't penetrate cell wall - arbuscular: enter root and penetrate cell wall but not membrane (can cause plants to be deeper green) - both give plants more phosphorus
30
what are endophytic fungi?
protect some plants from pathogens, herbivores, and stress - produce alkaloids toxic to animalas - these are fungi that live in above ground parts of plants without deleterious symptoms
31
what are the different groups of fungi?
chytrids (chytridiomycota and blastocladiomycota), zygospore (zoopagomycota), arbuscular (glomeromycotina), sac (ascomycota), club (basidiomycota), and microsporidia (parasite)
32
what are the asexual forms of reproduction for fungi?
production of (usually) haploid spores in sporangia; production of spores not in sporgania usually at tips of hypha (conidia in sac), cell division by unicellular (fission/budding), and mitotic fragmentation of mycelium
33
what are microspordia?
unicellular parasites with mitoses -> have polar tube that grows from spore to inject contents of spore into host
34
what are chytrids?
produce asexually and sexually. they possess flagella (reflect aquatic environment). they are diverse (unicellular, have rhizoids, coenocytic hypha, parasitic, saprobes, mutualistic, fresh/salt water)
35
what is the fusion of cytoplasm and nucleus called?
fusion of cytoplasm (plasmogamy) fusion of nucleus (karyogamy)
36
how do zygospore reproduce?
produce sexually when 2 different mating types -> each hypha produce gametangia -> in gametangia, nuclei replicate without division -> gametangia fuse to form zygosporangium -> haploid nuclei pair up to form diploid zyspore -> nucleus of zygospore undergo meiosis and sporangiophores with sporangium sprout -> spores -> haploid hypha
37
what are arbuscular fungi?
form association with plants and reproduce asexually
38
what is the synapomorphy of sac and club fungi?
dikaryon state (2 nuclei: n+n) in clade Dikarya - 2 different haploid nucleus coexist and video within each cell of fruiting body
39
what are sac fungi?
include molds and distinguished by production of sacs (asci) that contain haploid ascospores -> produce asexually (budding) and sexually
40
what are club fungi?
produce fruiting bodies called basidiomata - basidium (swollen cell at tip of specialized hypha) characteristic of sexual in club -> offend in gills - nucleus fuse in basidium -> diploid undergo meiosis -> incorporated into haploid basidiospore (tiny talks on outside of basidium)
41
what are fungi important for?
producing food and drinks; weapons against diseases & pests; record and hep remediate environmental pollution; model organisms; reforestation may depend on mycorrhizal fungi - lichen diversity and abundance = indicator of air quality
42
what are the features of animals?
multicellularity, heterotrophic metabolism, internal digestion, and movement with nervous system - animal monophyly supported by gene sequences and cellular morphology
43
what are the similarities of animal monophyly?
common set of extracellular matrix molecules (collagen and proteoglycans) and junctions between cells
44
what is the cleavage in animals?
early cell division in embryo -> radial/spiral cleave (Lophotrochozoans with earthworms and clams)/ idiosyncratic (neither radial or spiral with insects and nematodes)
45
how do you classify animals based of number of tissue layers?
monoblastic, diploblastic (ectoderma and endoderm), and triploblastic (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) - triploblastic divided into protostomes and deuterostomes based on what blastopore (formed during gastrulation) develop into
46
what are the different diploblastic and triploblastic animals?
diploblastic: placozoans, ctenophores, and cnidarians triploblastic: protostomes and deuterostomes
47
what are the 5 key features of a body plan?
symmetry structure of body cavity segmentation existence and location of appendages development of nervous system
48
what are the different kinds of symmetry?
asymmetrical, radial symmetry, or bilateral symmetry (cephalization, anterior, posterior, dorsal, and ventral)
49
what are the different kinds of structure of body cavity?
1. acoelomate: lack enclosed fluid -> filled body cavity with mesenchyme (flatworms) 2. pseudocoelomate: have body cavity called pseudocoel -> enclosed by muscle on outside but no inner layer surrounding organs (roundworm) 3. coelomate: have tissue (peritoneum) that surround internal organs
50
what are the different types of development of nervous system?
some have nervous system (bilaterians), nerve nets (ctenophores and cnidarians), or lack (sponges and placozoans)
51
what are the 5 ways of feeding?
filter feeding, herbivores, predators, parasites, and detritivores - parasites: end/ecto (end less complex b/c can function without digestive system) - detritus: organic matter on dead organisms or waste products
52
what is an exoskeleton?
hard covering on outside of body to which muscles are attached - can't move in wormlike motion or use cilia. also impede oxygen and nutrient passage - developed appendages to solve this (walking & swimming; gas exchange; food capture & manipulation; copulation and sensory)
53
what are the 3 features of mollusks?
1. food: large muscle structure that originally was locomotion and support for internal organs 2. visceral mass: heart digestive, excretory, and reproductive organs concentrated 3. mantle: fold of tissue that covers visceral mass. secrete hard, calcareous shell sometimes
54
what else do mollusks have?
mantle cavity where gills lie & have hemocoel for fluid movement. use gills for filter feeding or use rasping structure (radula) to scrape alga from rocks
55
what are the 4 classes of mollusks?
1. chitons: 8 overlapping calcareous plates surrounded by girdle. coins to rocks and move slowly. fertilization happen in water 2. gastropods: move by gliding muscular foot. some shelled or not. only terrestrial ones are snails and slugs 3. bivalves: have hinged-two part shell. use foot to borrow into mud and sand. take H2O from incurrent siphon and leave via excurrent siphon 4. cephalopods: excurrent siphon modified to allow animal control volume of mantle cavity (jet propulsion). predators
56
what do insects and crustaceans have in common?
divide into 3 parts for body: head, thorax, and abdomen (crustaceans have carapace)
57
what are the 3 clades for deuterostomes?
1. echinoderm: sea stars, sea urchins, and relatives (bilateral as large but radical as adults) 2. hemichordates: acorn worms and pterobranches 3. chordates: tunicates, lancelets, and vertebrates
58
what are the derived features of chordates?
1. dorsal hollow nerve cord 2. tail that extends beyond anus 3. dorsal supporting rod (notochord) -> core of large cells with turgid-filled vacuoles (replaced by skeletal structure in vertebrates)
59
what did fishes evolve to be better?
- jaws and teeth improved feeding efficiency (Gnathostomes- jaw mouth) - fins and swim bladders improve stability and control over locomotion
60
what helped reptiles (birds) and mammals to dominate the land?
amniote eggs from ancestor
61
what is the definition of ecosystem?
all organisms living in given area & their physical and chemical environment - use subset of species & components of physical and chemical environment based on investigation
62
how does energy and nutrients go through the ecosystem?
energy flows through and originates with sunlight & inorganic and organic compounds - come from sun and chemosynthesis (using energy from inorganic compounds) nutrients cycle through ecosystem and originate from soil, water, and atmosphere
63
what is the difference between gross primary production and net primary production?
gross: total amount of carbon fixed by primary producers in ecosystem net: amount of biomass incorporated into tissues of primary producers after respiration
64
how does primary production vary?
vary with latitude and ecosystem type - precipitation, temperature, and nutrients available control terrestrial primary production
65
what controls aquatic primary production?
light and nutrients combine to control - continental margins (coastal zones) and surface water of oceans and lakes (photic zones) - NPP limited by iron, nitrogen, and phosphorus
66
what is eutrophication?
process of ecosystem change initiated by increase of nutrients consumed by phytoplankton, cyanobacteria, and algae -> resulted in alga blooms
67
what is net secondary production?
amount of biomass obtained from consumption of other organisms
68
what controls amount of net secondary production?
- depends on how much plant tissue consumed (consumption efficiency) - how much consumed digested vs. released as feces/urine (assimilation efficiency) - how much used for metabolic activity & released as CO2 through respiration (production efficiency)
69
what is trophic efficiency?
measure of amount of energy at one trophic level divided by amount of energy at trophic level immediately below it - most lost b/w primary producer and primary consumer (terrestrial) - forest have less trophic efficiency than grassland b/c trapped in wood
70
what are food webs controlled by?
bottom-up (more NPP entering system, more energy passed up food web) and top-down (consumers regulate amount of NPP by feeding on lower trophic level) - importance of both vary (Ex: keystone species)
71
what are factors limiting number of trophic levels?
amount of NPP entering system, amount of disturbance, and evolutionary constraints on top predators
72
what is decomposition and mineralization?
decomposition: detritus are broken down by bacteria & fungi into energy and nutrients mineralization: process by animals, bacteria, and fungi to convert organic compounds into inorganic soluble matter
73
what is biogeochemical cycle?
pattern of movement of an element - hydrologic cycle - carbon cycle - nitrogen cycle dominated by biotic process (N2 fixed by bacteria into NH3 and NH4+ -> nitrifying bacteria into NO2- then NO3- -> gentrifying bacteria transform into N2 gas) - global phosphorus cycle dominated by geochemical processes (rock formation, uplift, and weathering) - burning of fossil fuels affects sulfur cycle (acid rain)
74
what are the concerns about biodiversity?
1. humans depend on species and ecosystems for goods & services 2. derive enormous psychological benefits (aesthetic pleasure) 3. ethical issues 4. deprive research
75
what is conservation biology?
integrative scientific discipline that relies on ecology, economics, social science, and policy to protect and manage Earth's biodiversity
76
what do humans do to the population size?
reduce effective population size (# of individuals that contribute offspring to next generation) -> extinction vortex - population size decline = chance of demographic stochasticity (fluctuations in population size as result of random differences among individuals in reproduction and survival)
77
why can't we track extinctions?
1. don't know how many species 2. distribution of rare species poorly known 3. difficult to determine if species is extinct 4. rarely know all interactions among species
78
what are the 4 principles of biodiversity?
1. habitat loss and degradation 2. overharvesting of resources 3. species invasion and disease 4. climate change
79
what is the difference between habitat loss and habitat degradation?
habitat loss: reduction in habitat quantity habitat degradation: reduction in habitat quality
80
what are charismatic megafauna?
species with widespread popular appeal (elephants and rhinos)
81
what happens when large top predators disappear?
topic cascades were interrupted -> changing abundance of herbivores and primary producers
82
what are protected areas and 2 criterias for them?
protected areas preserve habitat and curtail biodiversity loss (protected area where habitat loss/degradation restricted/prohibited) 2 criteria: 1. must support viable population of species meant to protect; 2. original ecosystem functions and services of habitat must be mostly intact
83
what are the 3 factors when designing a protected area?
1. identifying large area that is undisturbed and can serve as core 2. buffer zones (allow some resource extraction while maintaining original habitat) 3. habitat connectivity - also have coupled human-natural system ecology (wildlife friendly backyards and green roofs)
84
what is essential to maintaining biodiversity?
1. degraded ecosystems can be restored -> restoration ecology 2. captive breeding programs 3. ending trade 4. species invasion must be controlled/prevented 4. conserved as consequence of its economic value
85
what is dispersal?
movement of individuals into (immigration) and out of (emigration) -> populations linked by dispersal = metapopulation
86
what is endemic species?
species that occur in one particular location and nowhere else on Earth
87
what are the different dispersion patterns?
regular/uniform; random; clumped - spatial arrangement of individuals
88
what are the different kinds of competition?
intraspecific competition (same species) interspecific competition (different species)
89
what is the formula for population growth rate?
delta N = (b-d) N0
90
what is r and how does it pertain to population growth rate?
r is the different between birth and death rate (per capita growth rate) - population increase when b>d then r>0 and decline when b<3 and r<0
91
92
what is dispersal movement?
individuals into (immigration) and out of (emigration) -> populations linked by dispersal = metapopulation
93
what are endemic species?
species that occur in one particular location and nowhere else on Earth
94
what are dispersion patterns?
regular/uniform; random; clumped - spatial arrangement of individuals
95
what are the different kinds of competition?
intraspecific competition (same species) interspecific competition (different species)
96
what is the population growth rate?
delta N = (b-d) N0
97
how does r pertain to population growth rate?
r is the different between birth and death rate or per capita growth rate - increase when b>d and r>0 and decline when b
98
what is logistic growth?
occurs as population approaches carrying capacity
99
what are density-dependent factors?
limiting resources, predators, and pathogens -> Allele effect -> density-independent event that kills large # of population regardless of population (cold/hurricane)
100
what are the different types of species interaction?
positive, negative, and neutral if the effect is trophic (feeding) or not - falls into predation, competition, positive interactions, and amensalism
101
what is predation?
trophic interaction in which one species (predator) consumes other (prey) - include carnivore, herbivory, and parasitism
102
what is competition?
nontrophic interaction in which 2 or more species overlap in use of limiting resource -> limiting growth, reproduction, or survival
103
what are positive interactions (facilitations)?
trophic/nontrophic where at least one benefit and none are hamred - mutualism/commensalism - one benefit and one unaffected
104
what is amensalism?
one harmed and other unaffected
105
what are keystone species?
species that have large effect (not b/c of numbers) but because of important roles in communities
106
what are the different types of competitive?
limiting resource leads to competitive exclusion/coexistence - coexistence can manifest directly/indirectly: 1) interference competition; 2) exploration competition: resource available to all but outcome depends on how good species is
107
what is taxonomic affinity?
groups of organisms classified together b/c of evolutionary lineage)
108
how does community divide on resource use?
guild (group of taxonomic distinct species using similar resources) or functional group (species function in similar ways but may not use similar resources)
109
what are the parts of a food web?
primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, detritivores/decomposers, and scavengers
110
what is species diversity from?
combine species richness (# of species) and species evenness (relative abundance when compared)

Bisc 160 (8 decks)

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