Bisc 162 Exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
what happens when plates collide with each other?
A
- Subduction: thin oceanic plate forced under thick continental plate, resulting in volcanism & mountains
- 2 oceanic plates collide & one subducted: oceanic trenches & volcanic activity
- 2 continental plates collide & neither subduct: high mountain chains
- 2 plates slide past each other: transform fault boundary
2
Q
what are the different spheres called?
A
lithosphere (“stone sphere”)
asthenosphere (“weak sphere”) = mantle
3
Q
what environmental changes affect Earth?
A
volcanoes, extraterrestrial events, and oxygen concentration
4
Q
what evidence is there for extraterrestrial events?
A
the layer of iridium b/w Cretaceous and Paleogene
5
Q
what are stromatolites?
A
rock with cyanobacteria dead that allowed for oxidation of ATP for energy
6
Q
what is the history of oxygen?
A
began 2.5 bya when ancestors of modern cyanobacteria evolved to use H2O as source of hydrogen ion for photosynthesis -> O2 in water reacted with dissolved iron to form layers of red & dark bands known as banded iron formations
- second change about 1 bya when chloroplasts evolve
7
Q
what is allele effect?
A
smaller population have density-dependent disadvantage
8
Q
what are the terms for earth?
A
biota: all organisms at particular place/time
flora: plant
fauna: animal
9
Q
why are fossils incomplete?
A
- only small fraction become fossils & found
- rock containing fossils destroyed
- fossil-containing rock deeply buried inaccessible (most complete for marine animals w/ hard skeletons)
10
Q
what are the 4 ears of Earth’s history?
A
Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic
11
Q
what is the Precambrian Era?
A
4.6 bya to 542 mya & dominated by small aquatic life
12
Q
what is the Paleozoic Era?
A
542 to 251 mya
- 6 periods: Cambrian, [Ordovician], Silurian, [Devonian], Carboniferous, & [Permian]
- had marine radiation, transition to land, vascular plants, and vertebrates
13
Q
what is the Mesozoic Era?
A
251 to 65 mya with major land changes
- 3 periods: [Triassic], Jurassic, and [Cretaceous]
- Reptiles, fish reptiles, origin of mammals, flowering plants arise & diversify
14
Q
what is the Cenozoic Era?
A
65 mya to present with modern continental position
- 2 periods: Tertiary and [Quaternary]
- Mammals diversified, ice age, climate shift, flowering plants dominate, mammalian radiation, Homo evolution
15
Q
what is phylogeny and what can it be constructed by?
A
phylogeny depicts evolutionary history of animal relationship
- constructed via physical structure, behaviors, and biochemical attributes
16
Q
what are the different types of trees?
A
- speciation event (tree of species)
- gene duplication event (tree of genes)
- transmission event (tree of viral lineage transmitted through host population)
17
Q
what is a taxon?
A
any group of species we designate with name (humans, primates, mammals, and vertebrates)
18
Q
what is a clade?
A
any taxon that consists of all evolutionary descendants of common ancestor
- 2 species closest to each other: sister species/ 2 clades that each other closest relatives: sister clade
19
Q
what is systematics?
A
study & classification of biodiversity
20
Q
what are homologous?
A
any feature shared by 2 or more species that have been inherited from common ancestor
- Ex: DNA sequence, protein structures, anatomical structures, and behavior patterns
21
Q
what are ancestral and derived traits?
A
ancestral is from all character of organisms evolve
derived is what ancestral evolve into
- derived traits that are shared: synapomorphies
22
Q
what are homoplasies?
A
convergent evolution (similar traits evolve in different lineages); evolutionary reversal (derived -> ancient)
23
Q
what is the parsimony principle?
A
the preferred explanation of observed data is simplest explanation
- Occam’s razor: best explanation is one that best fits data while making fewest assumptions
24
Q
what data is used to develop phylogeny?
A
morphology, early development, paleontology, behavior (cultural/genetic), molecular data
25
what are phylogenetic trees used for?
1. describe evolutionary relationship
2. understand how traits evolve
3. convict people of attempted murder
4. track mutations & evolution of viruses (tract pandemic & predict strains)
5. infer traits of extinct animals
6. test hypotheses of evolution
7. description of how traits evolved
26
what can phylogenetic trees answer for diseases?
when, where, and how disease entered human from another animal (zootonic)
- HIV come from 2 hosts: 1) HIV-1 from chimpanzees (Central Africa); 2) HIV-2 from sooty mangabeys (Western Africa)
27
how does phylogenies allow us to compare and contrast living organism?
sexual selection hypothesis: female swordfish had preference with males w/ long tails before trait evolved -> used close relative to test hypothesis and turns out to be true
28
how does phylogenies reveal convergent evolution?
examining self incompatibility/compatibility -> saw incompatibility as ancestral and compatibility evolved 3 times
29
what is the molecular clock hypothesis?
rate of molecular change constant enough to predict evolutionary divergence times
30
what did Linnaeus develop?
naming system called binomial nomenclature: genus + species (H. sapiens)
31
what are the difference types of -phyletic?
monophyletic: taxon contains ancestors & all descendants of ancestor
polyphyletic: doesn't contain common ancestor but yes descendants
paraphyletic: doesn't contain all descendants of common ancestor
32
what is the order of taxonomy from big to small?
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, & Species
33
while prokaryotes lack nucleus, what do they still have?
1. cell membranes & ribosomes
2. common metabolic pathways
3. replicate DNA semiconservatively
4. DNA as genetic material to code protein
34
how do prokaryotes differ?
1. prokaryotes don't divide by mitosis
2. organization of genetic info differ
3. no membrane bound organelles
35
how do we identify bacteria?
1. staining (Gram positive- purple with lots of peptidoglycan/ Gram negative- pink with less pep)
2. shape: coccus, bacillus, & spirillum/ Archaea with cocci, bacilli, square, and triangular
36
why is rRNA used for phylogeny?
1. present in all common ancestor
2. rRNA can be compared across tree of life
3. play role in translation so lateral gene transfer b/w distant species unlikely
4. evolved slowly
37
what is lateral gene transfer?
bacteria produce lateral gene transfer (the good new ones preferred) -> gene tree doesn't reflect organismal
38
what are the two groups of temperature-loving bacteria? (extremophiles)
Hadobacteria (hot & cold)
Hyperthermophilic bacteria
39
what are firmicutes?
low GC-Gram positive bacteria (some Gram neg)
- some have endospores (clostridium & Bacillus)/Mycoplasmas= extremely small and lack cell wall
- Ex: staph that cause respiratory, intestinal and wound infections
40
what are actinobacteria?
high GC Gram positive bacteria
- Ex: mycobacterium tuberculosis & Streptomyces
41
what is cyanobacteria?
photosynthesize with chlorophyll a with organized internal membrane (photosynthetic lamellae)
- 3 cell types: vegetative (photosynthesize), spores (resting stage); and heterocyst (nitrogen fixation/reproduction)
42
what are spirochetes?
Gram neg motile bacteria: move with axial filament (multiple internal flagella running through periplasmic space) -> cell body is long cylinder coiled into helix -> internal begin at end and overlap at middle -> motor protein attach filament to cell wall
- Ex: syphilis & Lyme
43
what are chlamydias?
energy parasite- take ATP in exchange for ADP
- trachoma, eye infection, STDs, and some pneumonia
44
what are proteobacteria?
largest diverse described group (many Gram neg/mitochondria derived)
- Ex: Rhizobium (nitrogen fix), Yersinia pestis, Vibro cholera, Salmonella, and Agrobacterium tumefacien
45
what are the lineages of Archaea?
Euryarchaeota, Crenarchaeota, Thaumarchaeota, Kararchaeota, and Lokiarchaeota (closest relative to eukaryotes)
46
what are features of archaea?
lack cell wall & lipids of unique composition in membrane (long chains of hydrocarbon with glycerol at both ends)
47
what are crenarchaeotes?
thermophilic, acidophilic, or both
48
what are euryarchaeotes?
methogens and halophiles (using light energy to make ATP w/o chloroplast -> use retinal and proton)
- Ex: thermoplasma has no cell wall & thermophilic/acidophilic/aerobic
49
what is biofilm and process?
microbial communities form layers in sediments/clump together (dental plaque)
- Free-living bind to surface -> secrete sticky, gel-like polysaccharide matrix that traps other cells -> growing
50
what are Koch's postulates?
1. found in individuals with disease
2. can be taken from host & grown
3. sample produce same disease
4. new host yield identical culture
51
what affects the severity of bacterial infection?
1. invasiveness
2. ability to multiply
3. endotoxins (release when growth/lyse)
exotoxin (released by living bacteria)
52
what are the different ability to use/not use O2?
obligate anaerobes: can't use O2 at all
facultative anaerobes: use aerobic/anaerobic if conditions indicate
aerotolerant anaerobes: can't conduct cellular respiration and damaged by O2
obligate aerobes: can't survive w/o oxygen
53
what are the different nutritional categories for prokaryotes?
photoautotroph, photoheterotroph, chemoautotrophs, & chemoheterotrophs
54
what are the different nitrogen for bacteria?
denitrifiers: release nitrogen
nitrogen fixer: turn N2 to NH3
55
what are the different types of viruses?
negative-sense single stranded, positive-sense single stranded, retroviruses, and double-stranded
56
what are examples of negative sense?
must be converted to positive (measles, mumps, rabies, and flu)
57
what are examples of positive sense?
most abundant and diverse (polio, hep C, and common cold)
58
what are example of retroviruses?
need reverse transcriptase as part of reproduction -> enter nucleus of vertebrate -> viral reverse transcriptase produce cDNA -> replicate cDNA to double-stranded -> integration with host DNA (HIV)
59
how did modern eukaryotes appear?
1. flexible cell surface (infolding -> internal membrane)
2. cytoskeleton
3. nuclear envelope
4. vacuoles
5. endosymbiosis
60
what are the two different types of endosymbiosis?
1. primary endosymbiosis (2 membranes) - eukaryote engulf prokaryote
2. secondary endosymbiosis (3 membrane) - eukaryote engulf eukaryote
61
what are alveolate?
synapomorphies are alveoli (support cell surface)
Ex: dinoflagellates, apicomylexans, and ciliates
- paramecium solve hypertonic trouble by having contractile vacuole (excrete excess water taken up). also have digestive vacuole -> smaller vacuole contain digested food pinched off & enter cytosol
62
what are stramenopiles?
synapomorphy is possession of rows of tubular hair on longer of their two flagella
- diatoms produce sexually/asexually
- brown algae are brown b/c of carotenoid fucoxanthin & chlorophyll a & b -> use alginic acid to hold to rock
- water molds (oomycetes) are absorptive heterotrophs & feed on dead organic matter (saprobic)
63
what are rhizarians?
have long, thin pseudopods (cercozoans, foraminiferans, and radiolarians - secrete glassy exoskeleton)
64
what are excavates?
many lack mitochondria
ex: diplomonads & parabasalids; heteroloboseans; euglenids & kinetoplastids
65
what are amoebozoans?
defined by lobe-shaped pseudopod (loosens, plasmodial slime mold, and cellular slime mold)
- plasmodial= coenocyte (many nuclei in single cell membrane) -> form mass of harden cell-like/spore when conditions bad
- cellular is one haploid nuclei (single amoeboid cell) -> become slug (pseudoplasmodium) when conditions bad
66
what are examples of protist asexual reproduction?
1. equal splitting of cells by mitosis
2. one cell into multiple
3. budding
4. formation of spores (sporulation)
- all this is clonal lineages
67
what are alternation of generations?
life cycle found in many protists, all land plants, and some fungi
- heteromorphic have 2 generations that differ morphologically/ Isomorphic don't
68
what is plasmodium lifecycle?
mosquitos (Anopeles) transmit to human -> parasite travel to liver & lymphocyte to change form & multiply -> affect RBCs and lyse -> another mosquito bite infected -> ingested cell develop into gametes to form zygote -> move from gut to saliva -> repeat
- complex life cycle b/c more than one host
69
what is the synapomorphy of Plantae?
primary endosymbiosis
- key synapomorphy of land plats is development of embryo protected by parent tissue (embryophytes)
70
what is the ancestor of modern Plantae?
unicellular and similar to modern glaucophyles (chloroplast contain peptidoglycan b/w inner and outer membrane like cyanobacteria)
71
what are the difference between green and red algae?
- almost all red algae multicellular & have photosynthetic pigments phycoerythrin & chlorophyll a (red at deep & green at shallow)
- remaining alga is green (have chlorophyll a & b; store starch) -> largest clade=chlorophytes -> have aquatic/terrestrial; unicellular/multicellular; colonies (Volvox), filamentous, and sheets (Ulva)
- Volvox have specialized cell for reproduction -> preliminary step for specialization
72
what is the group formed between green alga and land plants?
all green alga besides chlorophytes form group with land plants called streptophytes
- both multicellular; retain eggs; connect cells via plasmodesmata; share similarities in mitosis and meiosis
- closest relative is coleochatophyte & stoneworts (have branching & apical
73
do nonvascular or vascular plants form clade?
nonvascular (liverworts, moss, and hornworts) have no clade while vascular have clade b/c of trachea's (tracheophytes)
74
what problems did plants have to overcome?
1. obtain and transport H2O & retain it
2. necessary nutrients
3. gravity
4. protection against UV
5. reproduction changes
6. reproductive innovation
75
what did plants develop to live on land?
1. cuticle: coating of waxy lipids that retards H2O loss
2. stomata
3. gametangia: multicellular organs that enclose plant gametes & prevents from drying out (archegonium & antheridium)
4. embryos: young plants enclosed in protective structures
5. certain pigments: protect against UV
6. thick spore walls
7. mycorrhizae (mutual benefit w/ fungi)
76
what are the two hallmarks of alternation of generation?
1. lifecycle has multicellular diploid/haploid
2. gametes produced by mitosis/ meiosis produces spores that develop into multicellular haploid
77
what is the lifecycle of plants?
diploid zygote -> diploid plant (sporophyte) -> cells contain specialized reproductive organ of sporophyte (sporangia) undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores -> spore develop into haploid plant (gametophyte) -> produce haploid gametes by mitosis -> fusion of 2 gametes form zygote
78
what do hornworts have?
distinctive chloroplast (single large platelike chloroplast) & stalkless sporophyte (capable of growth & always green)
79
do liverworts have stomata?
no; mosses, hornworts, and vascular plants have stomata
80
what is the key synapomorphy of vascular plants?
vascular tissue: xylem conducts H2O and minerals from soil to aerial parts (contain lignin) and phloem conduct products of photosynthesis from source to sink
81
what is the closest relative to vascular plants?
rhyniophytes -> didn't have roots - anchored by rhizomes (horizontal portion of stem) that had water absorbing filaments called rhizoids -> branching pattern is dichotomous (apex produce 2 branches)
82
what are lycophytes?
club mosses, spike moss, and quillworts; are sister group to other vascular plants -> have true roots and simple leaves (microphylls) & sporangia aggregated in conelike structure
83
what are moilophytes
horsetails and fern make this clade
- monilophytes and seed plants have called called euphyllophytes (synapomorphy=over-topping -> growth pattern where one branch differentiate from & grow beyond-> allowed for evolution of more complex leaf (megaphyll))
84
what is the different between homoesporous and heterosporous?
homo: bear single type of spore
heter: 2 distinct types of spore (megaspore-female gaemetophyte/ microspore- male gametophyte)
85
what do the vegetative (nonsexual) plant organs divide into?
1. root system anchor, absorb, and store
2. shoot system consists of stems, leaves, and flowers
- axillary bud forms in angle where leaf meets stem -> bud is underdeveloped shoot that can develop
86
what are the two clades that angiosperm can belong to?
monocots (narrow-leaved) and edicts (broad shaped) -> number of cotyledons (lead-like organ - immature seed)
87
what is the indeterminate growth of shoot and root because of?
meristem (localized regions of undifferentiated cells that are source of new growth)
- 2 apical meristem (shoot apical near end of embryonic shoot and root apical meristem)
- cells that perpetuate meristem (initial) like stem cells
88
what are the two types of meristem for G & D in plants?
1. apical meristem of roots and shoot for primary growth
2. lateral/secondary meristem for thickness & branching of roots/shoots. vascular cambium & cork cambium for secondary plant body (bark/wood)
89
what are the three types of plant tissue?
1. parenchyma are most abundant. have large vacuoles and thin walls. perform photosynthesis, transport, synthesis, secretion of metabolites, storage of protein in seeds and starch in roots. firmness depend on turgor
2. collenchyma are firm enough to provide support for growing tissue (stem) but flexible. generally elongated and ticker at corner b/c of pectins. provide support to leaf petioles, nonwoody stems, and growing organs
3. sclerenchyma have thick wall with secondary. provide support after death. fiber organized in bundles & provide support to wood & bark. sclereids pack densely in nut shell/seed coat
90
what are the 3 types of plan tissue?
1. dermal form outer covering of tissue (cuticle, stomatal guard cells, trichomes (leaf hair), root hair, and periderm)
2. ground tissue is 2nd layer: photosynthesis/storage of carbs, fats, and water (succulents)
3. vascular for xylem and phloem -> xylem distribute H2O and minerals taken up by roots & phloem for transport, support, and storage (source to sink)
91
what is the xylem?
conducting cells called tracheary elements (tracheids and vessel elements)
- spindle-shaped tracheids are ancient and present in gymnosperm. have pits in secondary to allow rapid movement
- vessel elements form hollow tube with larger diameter
92
what is the phloem?
cells called sieve tube elements (living) -> form tube where end walls called sieve plates
- close connection via plasmodesmata to companion cells (function as life support system)
93
what are the parts of the root tissue?
1. epidermis adapted for protection & absorption (some have root hair)
2. cortex is region of ground tissue
3. endodermis is innermost cortex. contain waterproof Suberin -> control movement in & out vascular system
4. stele consists of pericycle, xylem, & phloem
- pericycle function: tissue where lateral roots arise, contribute to secondary growth via lateral meristem, and contain membrane transport protein
- in monotonous, parenchyma cells (pith) at center for storage
94
what are the different roots for angiosperm?
root system develop from embryonic root called radicle
- eudicots: primary root (taproot) & grow downward & outward (lateral roots) -> taproot system (carrot)
- monocots: primary short lived & roots called adventitious roots & form fibrous root system
- corn, banyan, and pandanus trees have adventitious roots grow down from above ground
95
what are shoots composed of?
repeating module called phytomers (consists of node w/ attached leave and lengthening internode blow node, and axillary bud) -> bulges called leaf primordia develop on side of shoot apical (mature leaf) -> axillary bud form at base of leaf primordia & can develop into new shoot (branch) w/ meristem at tip
96
what is different about leaves?
1. growth is determinate
2. leaf is flat organ w/ distinct top & bottom side
97
what is the lateral meristem comprised of?
1. vascular cambium supplies cells of secondary xylem & phloem -> become wood (xylem) & bark (phloem)
2. cork cambium produces waxy-walled protective cells -> bark
98
how does the vascular and cork cambium divide?
vascular: b/w primary xylem & phloem -> as it divide, produce secondary xylem toward inside & phloem outside
- produce vessel element, tracheids, parenchyma, and supportive cell in second xylem & sieve tube element, companion cells, fibers, and parenchyma in secondary phloem
cork: grows outside and inside (inside make phelloderm)
- cork cambium, cork, and phelloderm make periderm + secondary phloem = bark
- spongy region on periderm (lenticels) allow gas exchange for tissue
