biopsychology Flashcards
what is the nervous system?
a specialised network of cells in the human body and is our primary internal communication system.
it consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
what is the central nervous system (CNS)?
consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions.
what is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
responsible for sending information to the CNS from the outside world, and transmitting messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body.
subdivides into the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
what is the autonomous nervous system (ANS)?
transmits information to and from internal bodily organs.
it is ‘automatic’ as the system operates involuntarily
somatic nervous system (SNS)?
transmits information from receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS.
it also receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act.
what is the endocrine system?
one of the body’s major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream.
these hormones are carried towards target organs in the body and they communicate via chemicals.
what is a gland?
an organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones
what is a hormone?
a biochemical substance that circulates in the blood but only affects target organs.
they are quickly produced in large quantities but disappear quickly
what is the fight or flight response?
the way that we respond when stressed.
the body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight an aggressor or to flee.
what is adrenaline?
a hormone produced by the adrenal glands which is the part of the human body’s immediate stress response system.
it has a strong effect on the cells of the cardiovascular system as it stimulates heart rate and contracts blood vessels.
what is a neuron?
the basic ‘building blocks’ of the nervous system.
they are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals.
what are sensory neurons?
these carry messages from the PNS to the CNS, and they have long dendrites and short axons.
what are relay neurons?
these connect to the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons, and they have short dendrites and short axons.
what are motor neurons?
these connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands, and they have short dendrites and long axons.
what is an axon?
the long, thin, hollow, cylindrical extension of a neuron that normally carries a nerve impulse away from the cell body.
what is a dendrite?
a branching, threadlike extension of the cell body that increases the receptive surface of a neuron.
what is the myelin sheath?
the insulating layer around many axons that increases the speed of conduction of nerve impulses.
what are the nodes of ranvier?
gaps in the myelin sheath coating on the neural axon that allow electrical impulses to move quickly down the axon.
what is a synapse?
a small gap at the end of a neuron that allows a signal to pass from one neuron to the next.
what is action potential?
the change in electric potential that propagates along the axon of a neuron during the transmission of a nerve impulse or the contraction of a muscle.
what is synaptic transmission?
the process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the gap that separates them.
what is a neurotransmitter?
endogenous chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other throughout the body.
what is excitation?
when a neurotransmitter increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron, which increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will pass on the electrical impulse
what is inhibition?
when a neurotransmitter increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron, which decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will pass on the electrical impulse.
what is a presynaptic terminal?
the place where the electrical signal is converted into a chemical signal.
what is serotonin?
a chemical that carries messages between nerve cells in the brain and throughout your body.
what is summation?
the process that determines whether/how frequently the neuron will fire.
by the combined effects of excitatory and inhibitory signals, both from multiple simultaneous inputs (spatial summation) and from repeated inputs (temporal summation).
what is localisation of function?
the theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours, processes or activities.
what is the motor area?
a region of the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement
what is the somatosensory area?
an area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch
what is the visual area?
a part of the occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information
what is the auditory area?
located in the temporal lobe and concerned with the analysis of speech-based information.
what is the broca’s area?
an area of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere that is responsible for speech production.
what is the wernicke’s area?
an area of the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere that is responsible for language complexion
what is hemispheric lateralisation?
the idea that two halves of the brain are functionally different and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other.
what is split-brain research?
a series of studies which began in the 1960s involving people with epilepsy who had experienced a surgical separation of the hemispheres of their brain to reduce the severity of their epilepsy.
what is plasticity?
the brain’s tendency to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning.
this generally involves the growth of new connections.
what is functional recovery?
a form of plasticity
following damage through trauma, the brains ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area to other undamaged areas
what is the hippocampus?
a complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe that has a major role in learning and memory.
what is the parietal cortex?
associations appear to be made in this region of the brain, often between disparate sources of information such as sights and sounds, sights and touches, or movements and their sensory consequences.
what is axonal sprouting?
the growth of new nerve endings that connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways
what is denervation supersensitivity?
occurs when axons that do a similar job become aroused to a higher level to compensate for the ones that are lost.
what is recruitment of homologous areas?
the recruitment of homologous areas on the opposite side of the brain to perform the specific tasks done by the damaged area.
what is the somatosensory cortex?
an important part of the cerebral cortex in the brain that processes sensory information from the body.
what is a fMRI?
functional magnetic resonance imaging
a method used to measure brain activity while a person is performing a task.
it detects radio waves from changing magnetic fields, which enables researchers to detect which regions of the brain are active
what is an EEG?
electroencephalogram
a record of the tiny electrical impulses produced by the brains activity that measures characteristic wave patterns to help diagnose certain conditions of the brain.
what is an ERP?
event related potential
the electrophysiological response of the brain to a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event that can be isolated through statistical analysis
what is a post-mortem examination?
the brain is analysed after death to determine whether certain observed behaviours during the person’s lifetime can be linked to structural abnormalities in the brain
what are biological rhythms?
distinct patterns of changes in the body activity that conform to cyclical time periods.
they are influenced by endogenous pacemakers as well as exogenous zeitgebers
what are circadian rhythms?
biological rhythms, subject to a 24-hour cycle which regulate a number of body processes such as core body temperature
what is the sleep/wake cycle?
a daily cycle of biological activity based on a 24-hour period that is influenced by regular variations in the environment such as the alternation of night and day.
what is the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)?
a bilateral structure located in the anterior part of the hypothalamus.
It is the central pacemaker of the circadian timing system and regulates most circadian rhythms in the body.
what is the retina?
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye.
A layer of neurons lines the inner surface of the back of the eye and provides the sensory signals required for vision.
what is the pineal gland?
a tiny endocrine gland in the middle of your brain that helps regulate your body’s circadian rhythm by secreting the hormone melatonin.
what is melatonin?
a hormone that your brain produces in response to darkness.
what are infradian rhythms?
a type of biological rhythm with a frequency of less than one cycle in 24 hours, such as menstruation
what are ultradian rhythms?
a type of biological rhythm with a frequency of more than one cycle in 24 hours, such as the stages of sleep.
what is seasonal affective disorder (SAD)?
a type of depression that comes and goes in a seasonal pattern
what are exogenous zeitgebers?
external factors that affect or entrain our biological rhythms, such as the influence of light on the sleep/wake cycle
what are endogenous pacemakers?
internal body clocks that regulate many of our biological rhythms, such as the influence of the SCN on the sleep/wake cycle
what is the hypothalamus?
an area of the brain that produces hormones that control things such as body temperature.
what is a postsynaptic neuron?
the nerve cell on the receiving end of an electrical impulse from a neighboring cell
what is the amygdala?
participates in the regulation of autonomic and endocrine functions, decision-making and adaptations of instinctive and motivational behaviors to changes in the environment through implicit associative learning
what is the SAM pathway?
sympathomedullary pathway
the body’s pathway for dealing with acute stress
what is the adrenal medulla?
the inner part of an adrenal gland, controls hormones that initiate the flight or fight response.
