approaches Flashcards
what is negative reinforcement?
the removal of a negative stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
what is positive reinforcement?
receiving an award when a certain behaviour is performed to increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
what is introspection?
the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
what is classical conditioning?
learning by association that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together.
what is operant conditioning?
a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.
what is punishment?
an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, such as being shouted at for talking during a lesson.
what is vicarious reinforcement?
reinforcement that is not directly experienced by us but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
what are mediational processes?
cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
what are internal mental processes?
private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
what is a schema?
a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing and are developed from experience
what is cognitive neuroscience?
the scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
what is neurochemistry?
relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate biological and psychological functioning
what is the genotype?
the particular set of genes that a person possesses
what is the phenotype?
the characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
what is evolution?
the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.
what are concordance rates?
the extent to which twins share the same characteristic
what is the unconscious?
the part of the mind that we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour
what is the Id?
it is entirely unconscious.
the Id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification
what is the ego?
the ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego
what is the superego?
the moralistic part of our personality that represents the ideal self and how we ought to be.
what is a defence mechanism?
unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego
what is free will?
the notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external forces.
what is self-actualisation?
the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s potential - becoming what you are capable of.
what are the five psychosexual stages?
- the oral stage
- the anal stage
- the phallic stage
- the latency stage
- the genital stage
what is the oral stage?
(0-1 years)
the focus of pleasure is the mouth, and the mother’s breasts can be the object of desire.
unresolved conflict can lead to an oral fixation such as smoking or nail-biting.
what is the anal stage?
(1-3 years)
the focus of pleasure is on the anus.
the child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.
unresolved conflict can lead to being anal retentive (perfectionist) or anal expulsive (thoughtless)
what is the phallic stage?
(3-6 years)
focus of pleasure is on the genital area.
unresolved conflict can lead to a phallic personality (narcissism)
what is the latency stage?
this is where earlier conflicts are repressed.
what is the genital stage?
sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty, which can form a difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
what does the behaviourist approach say?
believed that all humans were born as blank slates and influenced by the environment.
states that behaviour is learnt from interactions with the environment (through classical/operant conditioning)
what does the social learning theory say?
Behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.
what does the cognitive approach say?
our brain processes information like a computer system with input-store-process-output.
assumes that there is an internal process that occurs between when a stimulus happens and when you respond to it.
what does the biological approach say?
biological structures determine our behaviour and thoughts
attempts to explain behaviour in terms of different biological processes, including genes, hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.
what does the psychodynamic approach say?
focuses on the internal, unconscious mental forces that individuals are largely unaware of, but drive emotions and actions
what does the humanist approach say?
talks about free will, self-discovery and achieving your full potential as a human being, rather than concentrating on individual problems or symptoms
emphasizes the unique experiences and potential for growth of the individual
what are the four mediational processes?
attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.
what is the role of the unconscious?
it is the motivating force behind our behaviour and can be driven by traumatic memories.
what are defence mechanisms?
it helps the ego to manage the conflict between the id and the superego by providing compromise solutions to unresolvable conflicts.
