BIOMEDICINE - LINDA MORSE REVIEW GUIDE Flashcards
Vitamin A: Retinol is found in what foods
Fruits, vegetables, dairy products liver
Vitamin A: Retinol pathologies
Night blindness (too much can be toxic to the liver)
Vitamin B1: Thiamin is found in what foods
Whole grains, legumes, liver yeast
Vitamin B1: Thiamin pathologies
*Beriberi, loss of appetite, fatigue
Vitamin B2: Riboflavin is found in what foods
Eggs, leafy greens, dairy products, organ meets
Vitamin B2: Riboflavin pathologies
Mouth sores, angular stomatitis, dry mouth
Vitamin B3: Niacin is found in what foods
Fowl, liver, yeast, meat
Vitamin B3: Niacin pathologies
*Pellagra, skin disorders, mental disorders
Vitamin B5: Pantothenic Acid foods
Eggs, liver, yeast
Vitamin B5: Pantothenic pathologies
Adrenal problems
Vitamin B6: Pyroxidine foods
Liver, dairy products, whole grains
Vitamin B6: Pyroxidine pathologies
Anemia and seizures, slow growth, skin problems
Vitamin B9: Folic Acid foods
Vegetables, eggs, liver, whole grains
Vitamin B9: Folic Acid pathologies
Anemia
Vitamin B12: Cobalamin foods
Liver, meat, dairy products, eggs
Vitamin B12: Cobalamin pathologies
*Pernicious anemia, severe alcoholics, vegetarians
Vitamin C: Ascorbic Acid foods
Citrus, fruits, tomatoes, potatoes
Vitamin C: Ascorbic Acid pathologies
Scurvy, easy bruising, slow healing
Vitamin D: Calciferol foods
Fortified milk, fish oils, sunshine
Vitamin D: Calciferol pathologies
*Rickets, *osteomalacia
Vitamin E: Tocopherols foods
Whole grains, dairy products, meats
Vitamin E: Tocopherols pathologies
*Hemolytic anemia in children
Vitamin K: Menadione foods
Liver, intestinal bacteria, dark green vegetables
Vitamin K: Menadione pathologies
Blood clotting
Vitamin H: Biotin foods
Liver, yeast, bacteria in gut
Vitamin H: Biotin pathologies
Skin problems, loss of hair
Iron foods
Eggs, fish, liver, meat, poultry, green leafy vegetables, whole grains
Iron pathologies
Poor immunity, poor concentration, anemai, fatigue, itching, pica
Flouride foods
Water supply
Flouride pathologies
Easy tooth decay
Iodine foods
Dairy products, seafood, saltwater fish, kelp
Iodine patholoiges
Simple goiter, cretinism
What is the Citric Acid Cycle aka the Krebs Cycle?
A series of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions, which are of primary importance to all living cells that use oxygen as a part of cellular respiration. Depends on the following vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, B12, Biotin
Liver location
Upper border: 5th or 6th intercostal space
Lower border: 10th or 11th rib or under the xiphoid process
Kidney location
Right: T12-L3
Left: T11 to L2
Which kidney is higher?
The LEFT kidney
Heart location
Apex: 5th intercostal space
Mitral valve: between the left atrium and ventricle
Tricuspid valve: on the right
Lung location
Front: 6th intercostal space
Axillary: 8th intercostal space
Back: 10th intercostal space
Spleen location
LEFT SIDE OF THE BODY
From the 9th to the 11th rib
Scapula location
Level with T3 through T7
Spinal cord location
Level with T3 through T7
Inguinal groove landmarks
Nerve, artery, and vein (NAV) - lateral to medial
Eustachain Tube location
Opening between the pharynx and middle ear
The small intestine includes which three organs
Duodenum, jejenum, ileum
The cerebrum is in charge of
Cognitive motor control: memory, sensory awareness, speech, taste, vision
The cerebellum is in charge of
Coordination and integration of motor skills and balance: motor learning, motor control, voluntary movements
The thalamus is in charge of
Information processing back to the cerebellum, regulates motor function, governs sleep and awake states
The hypothalamus is in charge of
Emotions, blood pressure, thirst, heart rate, sleep cycles, regulation of body temperature, water balance
The brain stem is in charge of
Respiration and heart rates, peripheral blood flow
What establishes respiratory rhythm?
Brain stem and pons
What do neurons do?
Conduct impulses and wires the nervous system’s information circuits
What is the soma?
The cell body of the neuron that contains the nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles
What are dendrites?
The branches of the nerve cell body that receive stimuli that initiate nerve signals
What is the axon?
The part of the neuron that conducts impulses away from the cell body
What are the three neurotransmitters?
Substance P
Enkephalins
Endorphins
What is substance P?
A neurotransmitter and peptide that transmits pain
What are enkephalins?
A neurotransmitter that acts like opiates to block pain
What are endorphins?
A neurotransmitter that acts like opiates to block pain
What are the two parts of the CNS?
Brain and spinal cord (can’t regenerate)
What are the two parts of the PNS?
Autonomic and voluntary
What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system?
Parasympathetic and sympathetic
Parasympathetic nervous system regulates
Eating, relaxing, urination
The sympathetic nervous system does what?
Stimulates adrenal glands to secrete epinephrine, adrenaline, and inhibit intestinal contractions, tachycardia, fight or flight
What are the two parts of the voluntary nervous system
Cranial and spinal nerves
C6 anatomical level
Beginning of the esophagus and trachea
C7 anatomical level
Highest point of the thoracic duct (lymph drainage)
T1 anatomical level
Apex of lungs
T4 anatomical level
Arch of the aorta
T7 anatomical level
Inferior angle of the scapula
T9 anatomical level
Xiphoid, sternal costal angle
T10 anatomical level
Esophageal hiatus in the diaphragm
L2 anatomical level
End of the spinal cord, testicular or ovarian artery
L3 anatomical level
Inferior mesenteric artery
L4 anatomical level
Iliac crest, umbilicus
Olfactory cranial nerve
Sensnory: smell
Optic cranial nerve
Sensory: vision
Oculomotor cranial nerve
Motor: eye movement (4 directions)
Trochlear cranial nerve
Motor: eye movement
Trigeminal cranial nerve
Motor and sensory: face and scalp sensation/pain, chewing
Abducens cranial nerve
Motor: eye movement, abducts the eye
Facial cranial nerve
Motor and sensory: facial expressions, saliva, tear excretion, taste, bell’s palsy
Vestibulocochlear cranial nerve
Sensory: balance, equilibrium, hearing
Glossopharyngeal cranial nerve
Sensory and motor: swallowing, taste, ear pain, temperature
Vagus cranial nerve
Sensory and motor: controls muscles for voice and swallowing, taste from the epiglottis, sensation and motor control of the thoracic and abdominal viscera
Accessory cranial nerve
Motor: movements of shoulder, head, and viscera
Hypoglossal cranial nerve
Motor: tongue movement swallowing
Alzheimer’s
The most common cause of demential, brain cells degenerate reducing responsiveness
Sx: begins slowly and worsens over time, personality changes, poor memory, forgetfulness, inability to recognize people, places, objects, difficulty with abstract thinking
Tx: cholingergic enhancers, tricyclic antidepressent, provigil, NSAID’s, gingko biloba
Parkinson’s
A progressively slow degenerative disorder of the CNS nerve tissue and neurotransmitter production.
Sx: tremors at rest, sluggish initiation of movements, muscle rigidity, bradykinesia, *shuffling gait, loss of postural reflexes, mask like face, staring, *damages both sides of the body
Tx: levodopa (dopamin precursor), anticholinergics
Stroke (Cerebral Vascular Attack) - CVA
Permanent damage to brain tissue due to ischemia (lack of blood/oxygen leading to death of tissue) in excess of four minutes. Can be caused by an aneurism, trauma, or vascular malformation by a blood clot (thrombus or embolus). The most common vessel involved is the *middle cerebral artery, *forehead does wrinkle
Sx: ipsilateral facial paralysis, contralateral hemiparesis, loss of extensor control, visual blurring, pupil asymmetry, difficulty speaking, aphasia, dizziness, sudden headache, possible loss of consciousness
Tx: keep blood pressure low, aspirin
TIA (Transient Ischemic Attack)
A temporary deficiency in the brain’s blood supply due to embolus, thrombus, or arterial stenosis. Most commonly affected: internal carotid, middle cerebral, or vertebrobasilar arteries.
Sx: ipsilateral blindness or contralateral hemiparesis, dizziness, double vision, general weakness, loss of sensation, weakness, slurred speech, unusual movements, imbalance, falling. Symptoms are *temporary and *reversible.
Tx: antiplatelets, anticoagulants, arterial bypass
Trigeminal Neuralgia
Disorder of the CNV along one or more sensory divisions, especially the maxillary.
Sx: Successive, excruciating pain lasting seconds - 2 minutes, aggravated by touch and activity
Bell’s Palsy
Unilateral facial motor weakness/paralysis due to acquired dysfunction of CN VII
Sx: *Unilateral facial *motor weakness/paralysis, inability to close affected eye, increased salivation and lacrimation, altered taste, *forehead does not wrinkle
Tx: corticosteroids during acute stage
Atonic Seizures
A seizure where the person suddenly loses strength and drops to the ground. The eyelids may droop, the head may nod and the person may drop things as he falls to the ground. They are also called “drop attacks” or “akinetic”. This sometimes starts in childhood and often leads to adulthood. Some people wear protective helmets. EEG monitoring may be performed to confirm this and if the seizures persist other tests may be used to make sure that changes in the heart rhythm or blood pressure are not causing the patient to fall down.
Tonic Clonic Seizures (Grand Mal Seizures)
Associated with epilepsy. They are divided into two phases, *tonic and *clonic. Before the seizures begin a person may feel a sense of deja vu, light headedness or dizziness, weird emotions, intense feelings like something is wrong (a simple partial seizure).
Tonic Clonic Seizures - tonic phase
The person quickly loses consciousness and the skeletal muscles will suddenly tense. This is a very quick part of the seizure lasting only a few seconds. The person may also express vocalizations like a loud moan during the tonic stage due to air forcefully expelling from thelungs.
Tonic Clonic Seizures - clonic phase
The muscles start to contract and relax quickly, causing convulsions, varying from twitches to violent shaking. Person may roll and stretch, eyes roll back or close and the tongue could sustain bruising by the strong jaw contractions, possible incontinence The person has confusion and complete amnesia upon regaining consciousness which wears off.
First aid to those with seizures
Seek medical attention immediately. No attempt to restrain the person should be made. Place something soft under their head and ensure their limbs and body don’t bump into walls or other objects. If the person vomits, turn the head to the side. Nothing should be placed in the mouth because they can bite their tongue or choke. The frenulum linguae prevents them from swallowing their tongue. Usually it is not necessary to call an ambulance, unless the person is not known to have epilepsy, the seizure lasts more than 5 minutes, or another seizure occurs before regaining consciousness, suffer self injury, or stop breathing during/after the seizure.
Glaucoma
Increased intraocular pressure resulting in atrophy of the retina and optic nerve. Possible blindness.
Cataracts
Cloudiness of the lenses which causes decreased vision. Etiology unknown, maybe age related.
Detached retina
Usually happens due to trauma of the head, distorted vision, flashes of light or vision loss. Get medical attention as soon as possible, this could require surgical reattachment.
Meniere’s syndrome
Vertigo, hearing loss, nausea, tinnitus, leading to progressive deafness. Caused by rapid violent firing of the fibers of the auditory nerves
Stage one of Decubitus ulcers
Characterized by a surface reddening of the skin. The skin is unbroken and the wound is superficial. Lke a sunburn. Treatment consists of turning or alleviating pressure in some form of avoiding more exposure to the cause of injury.
Stage two of Decubitus ulcers
The blister is either broken or unbroken. A partial layer of skin is now injured. You must cover, protect and clearn the area.
Stage three of Decubitus ulcers
The wound extends through layers of the skin. It is a primary site for a serious infection to occur. Treat the same as stage two. Medical care is necessary to promote healing and prevent infection.
Stage four of Decubitus ulcers
Extends through the skin and involves underlying muscle, tendons, and bone. The diameter is not so important as the depth. This is very serious and may be life threatening. Must have medical care. Surgical removal of the necrotic or decayed tissue is often used in wounds of large diameter.
What hormones does the Anterior Pituitary secrete?
Growth Hormone GH Prolactin PRL Adrenocorticotropic ACH Thyroid Stimulating TSH Melanocyte Stimulation MSH Follicle Stimulation FSH Leutinizing Hormone LH
Growth Hormone GH
Growth of body cells: hypo = dwarfism, hyper = gigantism/acromegaly
Prolactin PRL
Initiates and maintains milk secretion of mammary glands
Adrenocorticotropic ACH
Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete hormones
Thyroid Stimulating TSH
Controls secretion of hormones by the thyroid. Most sensitive test for hypothyroidism
Melanocyte Stimulation MSH
Stimulates dispersion of melanin for skin color
Follicle Stimulation FSH
Women: initiate development of ova, induce secretion of estrogen by ovaries
Men: stimulates the testes to produce sperm
Leutinizing Hormone LH
Women: with estrogen, triggers ovulation and formation of corpus leutium (progesterone)
Men: stimulates interstitial cells in testes to produce testosterone
What are the hormones the posterior pituitary gland secretes?
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone
Oxytocin
Stimulates uterine contraction during labor, aids the mammary in milk ejection
Antidiuretic hormone
Decreases urine volume, raises blood pressure by constricting vessels
What hormone does the hypothalamus secrete?
Releasing and Inhibiting hormones
What do releasing and inhibiting hormones do?
Regulates emotions (the releasing and inhibition of special hormones)
What hormones does the thyroid secrete?
T3 and T4
Calcitonin
What does T3 and T4 do?
Regulates metabolism, growth and development, and the activity of the nervous system
Calcitonin
Lowers blood levels of calcium, increases calcium from storage in bones
What are the hormones the Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) secrete?
Glucagon
Insulin
GH inhibiting factor
Glucagon
Raises blood glucose - conversion of glycogen into glucose
Insulin
Lowers blood glucose - transports into cells, converts glucose to glycogen
GH inhibiting Factor
Inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon
What are the hormones secreted by the Adrenal Cortex?
Aldosterone
Cortisol
Androgens and Estrogens
Aldosterone
Increases sodium reabsorption and potassium ions
Cortisol
Increases blood glucose levels and participates in carbohydrate metabolism
What are the hormones secreted by the Adrenal Medulla?
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Increases the heart, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels, great to counteract stress
What is the hormone secreted by the testes?
Testosterone
Testosterone
Regulates the male sex hormones, increases the rate of cellular metabolism and production of red blood cells
What are the hormones secreted by the ovaries?
Estrogen and Progesterone
Estrogen
Produce the female sex cells and sex hormones. Stimulates the enlargement of accessory organs, external structures, and is responsible for the development and maintenance of female secondary sexual characteristics and the menstrual cycle.
Progesterone
Helps the uterus prepare for pregnancy. Stimulates the development of mammary glands, menstrual cycle
What hormone does the Pineal gland secrete?
Melatonin
Meltaonin
A substance formed by the pineal gland that seems to depress gonadal functions and inhibited reproductive functions, involved in circadian rhythms
What hormone does they Thymus secrete?
Thymosin
Thymosin
A group of peptides secreted by the thymus gland that increases production of certain types of white blood cells.
Cushing’s syndrome
Endocrine disease: hyper-secretion of glucocorticoids, redistribution of body fats, “moon face”, swollen face, red cheeks, buffalo hump, thin reddened skin
Addison’s disease
Endocrine disease: Hypo-secretion of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, decrease in blood sodium levels, drop in blood glucose and increase in potassium levels and dehydration with weight loss, hyperpigementation
Grave’s disease
Hyperthyroidism disease of the endocrine system: Toxic diffuse goiter, exophthalmos, raised skin over the shins, functions are all sped up, inherited or possible autoimmunity, increased perspiration and nervousness
Hashimoto’s disease
Hypothyroidism disease of the endocrine system: Hypo-secretion of thyroid hormone, enlarged thyroid (goiter), affects ages 30-50 years, functions are slowed down, more common in femals. autoimmune disorder
Simple goiter
Disease of the endocrine system: Deficiency of thyroid hormones due to iodine deficiency
Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1: juvenile onset, insulin dependent (IDDM), rare
Type 2: adult onset, overweight, hereditary, non-insulin dependent (NIDDM), common
Gestational Diabetes
Disease of the endocrine system: Carbohydrate intolerance during pregnancy, resolve after delivery
Diabetes Insipidus
Disease of the endocrine system: Chronic excretion of very large amounts of pale urine of low specific gravity which causes dehydration and extreme thirst. Usually results from in adequate output of pituitary anti-diuretic hormone
Cretinism
Disease of the endocrine system: Due to underactive thyroid gland during infancy and chidlhoood
Dwarfism
Disease of the endocrine system: Due to underactive growth hormone during childhood
Gigantism
Disease of the endocrine system: due to overactive growth hormone, usually with tumor of pituitary, during childhood
Acromegaly
Disease of the endocrine system: Oversecretion of growht hormone during adulthood
Syndrome X
Disease of the endocrine system: A collection of metabolic abnormalities that puts patients at a great risk of stroke and coronary artery disease. The syndrome is characterized by elevated levels of cholesterol and triglycerides, obesity and insulin resistance. AKA: HBP, high blood sugar, too much fat around the waist
Vitiligo
Disease of the endocrine system/melanin: Depigmented macules appear on the face, hands, feet, other regions
Cafe au lait spot
Disease of the endocrine system/melanin: Slight uniformly pigmented macule/patch with irregular border. 0.5-1.5 cm
Aplastic Anemia
Cause: toxic chemicals, radiation
Defect: damages bone marrow
Hemolytic Anemia
Cause: toxic chemicals
Defect: red blood cells destroyed
Iron deficiency Anemia
Cause: dietary lack of iron
Defect: hemoglobin deficient
Pernicious Anemia
Cause: inability to absorb vitamin B12
Defect: excess of immature cells, lack of intrinsic factor essential for the reabsorption of cyanocobalamin
Sickle Cell Disease
Cause: defective gene
Defect: red blood cells abnormally shaped
Thalassemia
Cause: defective gene
Defect: hemoglobin deficient; red blood cells short lived
Microcytic Anemia
A generic term for any type of anemia characterized by SMALL red blood cells. The red blood cells are usually HYPOCHROMIC (pale). Causes in children are from iron deficiency and Thalassemia. For adults iron deficiency and sideroblastic anemia, lead poisoning.
Macrocytic Anemia
When blood with an insufficient concentration of hemoglobin in which the red blood cells are LARGER than their normal volume with an insufficient number of cells. Types of MACROCYTIC anemia include MEGALOBLASTIC anemia usually associated with chronic alcoholism or poisons like antiviral drugs or chemotherapeutic agents. .
What is the first line of defense in the immune system?
The skin and mucous membranes
What is the second line of defense in the immune system?
Inflammation
The is the third and last line of defense for the immune system?
Immune response
Lymphocytes
Primary cell for immune response
Originates in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow of the fetus
T-Lymphocytes
Migrate through the thmus gland to become T-lymphocytes. These cells leave the marrow at an early age and travel to the thymus and mature. Here they are imprinted with critical information for recognizing self and non self substances
B-Lymphocytes
Mature in bone marrow
Lymph nodes
Filter lymph and phagocytes (eat foreign particles) from harmful bacteria and microorganisms
Components of blood
45% blood, 55% plasma
Platelets
Important in coagulation
Erythrycoytes
Transport of respiraotyr gases - depend on hemoglobin. Low levels in hodkin’s, MM, leukoemia
Luekocytes
Most important cellular components in the body’s defenses
What are the three types of Granulocytes
Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Neutrophils
60-70%, cellular defense phagocytes of small pathogenic microorganisms. BACTERIAL INFECTIONS, inflammation and stress responses
Eosinophils
2-4%, lining of respiratory and digestive tract, PARASITES AND ALLERGENS
Basophils
0.5-1%, contains HISTAMINE (antiinflammatory) and HEPARIN (anticoagulant)
What are the three types of agranulocytes?
Lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages
Lymphocytes
20-25% of agranulocytes. Smallest. They DIRECTLY ATTACK INFECTED OR CANCEROUS CELLS. For viral infections.
Monocytes
3-8% of agranulocytes. Largest, phagocytosis of large bacterial organisms. For chronic VIRAL INFECTIONS.
Macrophages
“Large eaters”. They are large and long lived. They capture foreign cells, digest and present protein fragments from the cells They present the antigen to T cells.
IgM antibodies - immunoglobulin
Synthesized by immature Beta cells, produced after initial contact with antigen. Does not cross the placenta.
IgG antibodies - immunoglobulin
Most abundant, makes up 75% of antibodies in the blood. DOES cross the placenta.
IgA antibodies - immunoglobulin
Present in mucus membranes, saliva, tears, colostrums. Does not cross the placenta
IgE antibodies - immunoglobulin
Associated with allergies
IgD antibodies - immunoglobulin
Unknown
Type 1 Hypersensitivity reactions. IgE
IgE antibody reaction occurs within 15 to 30 minutes of exposure tough sometimes 10-12 hours after exposure. Anaphylaxis is the most severe type of hypersensitivity. Reactions in this group are allergic rhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis, allergic asthma, food allergies.
Type 2 Hypersensitivity reactions. IgG and IgM
IgG and IgM mediate cytotoxic reactions activate in the complement cascade. Symptoms emerge within a few minutes to several hours after the antibody-antigen binding. Hemolytic anemia, blood transfusions,and drug allergies.
Type 3 Hypersensitivity reactions IgG and IgM
IgG and IgM are immune complex reactions. The reaction is usually within 3-10 hours after the immune complex forms. SLE, glomerulonephritis, polyarteritis, vasculitis and RA.
Type 4 Hypersensitivity reactions T-cell lymphocytes
Mostly T-cells, also called delayed type hypersensitivity reactions which usually take days or weeks to manifest. Rashes like poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac, bacteria or fungi.
Myasthenia Gravis
Disease of the Immune System: A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease causing weakness of the skeletal and voluntary muscles of the body. Lack of eyelid muscle movement is one of the first signs. The thymus gland is usually abnormal.
Multiple Sclerosis
Disease of the Immune System: A disorder in which th nerves of the eye, brain, and spinal cord lose patches of myelin. There is numbness, motor, sensory, and visual problems including loss of balance, muscle spasms, sexual problems, trouble moving arms and legs, walking, coordination. Heat triggers symptoms, tremors, bowel and bladder problems.
Lupus (SLE)
Disease of the Immune System: the most common autoimmune disease the damages the skin, joints, and organs. Symptoms are achey joints, welling of hands and feet, fever, extreme fatigue, skin lesions, butterfly shaped rash across the cheeks and nose, sensitivity to light, hair loss, abnormal blood clotting, Raynaud’s disease, weight loss or weight gain, anxiety, dry eyes.
Sjogren’s Syndrome
Disease of the Immune System: A systemic autoimmune disease in which the immune cells attack and destroy the exocrine glands that produce tears and saliva. Can occur with RA, SLE, scleroderma, or primary biliary cirrhosis. Symptoms of dryness (eyes, skin, nose, vagina, organs).
Scleroderma
Disease of the Immune System: An autoimmune disease of the connective tissue causing skin thickening, spontaneous scarring, blood vessel disease, and varying degrees of inflammation. Environment plays a very important role and may be genetically predisposed.Causes inflammation (redness, swelling, tenderness, itching, and pain) of the skin. Affects the fingers, feet, face, and neck.
Histamine
Allergic reactions
Bradykinin
Mediates inflammation
Serotonin
Plays a role in infalmmation
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Most common form of skin cancer, related to sun exposure, non metastasizing, malignant, grows slowly, located at the basal layer of the epidermis. People over 40, usually on the face
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Malignant tumor of the outer epidermis, most likely to metastasize. People over 60 usually, fair skinned and sun exposed. Grows quickly.
Malignant Melanoma
Malignant tumor of melanocytes, rapid progression, metastasizing form. Noticeable growth or color change, mostly fair skinned people. Variation in color, irregular perimeter and surface, asymmetrical, raised, bigger than 7mm.
Herpes Zoster (shingles)
Infectious pathology: Severely painful skin eruptions of fluid filled blisters. Caused by the herpes virus, VARICELLA ZOSTER which causes chicken pox. It lays dormant in the DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA of the spinal cord. Symptoms include pain, tingling, and itching, malaise, small fluid filled blisters, unilateral on the trunk. Until scabbing occurs, blisters may transmit the virus causing chicken pox in other people. Stress brings it out.
Cytomegalovirus
Infectious pathology: A viral inflammation of the retina of the eye caused by herpes. Symptoms include blind spots, blurred vision, decreased visual acuity, floaters and loss of peripheral vision. Harms those that have a weakened immune system.
Genital Warts
Infectious pathology: caused by the human papilloma virus. Small, soft, moist, pink or red swelling, one or a group looking like cauliflower.
Meningitis
Infectious pathology: Infection of the meninges (tissues around brain), recent onset of severe whole head headache and pain traveling down the neck. Other signs; Stiff neck, Kernig sign, vomiting, high fever, nuchal rigidity develops over hours or days.
Encephalitis
Infectious pathology: An acute inflammation of the brain caused by bacteria such as meningitis spreading directly to the brain. Could also be caused by rabies or syphilis. Symptoms include fever, headache, and photophobia with weakness and seizures common.
Conjunctivitis
Infectious pathology: An inflammation of the conjunctiva, the membrane that lines the eyelid and circles around and covers most of the white of the eye. The eyes are red, swollen, itchy, with pus in the eye, the eyelids may stick together. Can be caused by allergies, makeup, viruses, bacteria, contact lens solution.
Sty
Infectious pathology: A bacterial infection within an oil gland on the edge of the eyelid. It looks like a small pimple and will gradually come to a head, open and drain. Early treatment is beneficial. A stubborn case may need antibiotics.
Malaria
Infectious pathology: An infection resulting from asexual erythrocytic or blood stage parasites (mosquito). The incubation period can be 7-30 days. Anti malarial drugs can be taken by travelers. Lasts 6-10 hours and sometimes goes unnoticed. Symptoms include fever, chills, sweats, headaches, nausea, vomiting, body aches, and general malaise.
Toxoplasmosis
Infectious pathology: An infection caused by single celled parasite called toxoplasma gondii. The infection is most commonly acquired from contact with cats and their feces or with raw or undercooked meat. Very dangerous in pregnant women. Typical flu like symptoms, swollen lymph nodes, muscle aches and pain that lasts from a few days to several weeks.
Typhoid Fever
Bacteria pathology: A life threatening illness caused by bacterium Salmonella Typhii. Can occur from overseas food or beverage, in sewage, and water. Vaccination is available. Symptoms are high fever, weakness, stomach pains, headache, or loss of appetite, rashes.
Cat Scratch Fever
Bacteria pathology: An infection caused by BARTONELLA BACTERIA that is transmitted by cat scratches or bites or exposure to cat saliva. Symptoms include fatigue, fever, headache, lymph node swelling, malaise, blisters or bumps at the site of the attack. Not a serious patholoyg.
Listeriosis
Bacteria pathology: A bacterial infection which is relatively rare and more likely would be found in someone who had a compromised immune system or a pregnant woman. Caused by contaminated food products like raw meat, dairy products, vegetables, and seafood, soft cheese, and unpasteurized milk.
Pseudomonas Aeruginosa
Bacteria pathology: Found in soil, water, skin, and man made environments, including medical equipment, hot tubs. Symptoms include inflammation, sepsis, urinary difficulty, and fruity door. It is antibiotic resistant.
Vibrio Vulnificus
Bacteria pathology: Found in marine and fresh water environments that contains seafood. Symptoms are diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain. May develop into septicemia.
Contact Dermatitis
Skin disease: two types, allergic, and irritant. Plant allergens causing dermatitis include poison, ivy, oak, and sumac. Other allergens are hair sprays, rubber, citrus fruit and peels, fragrances, medications.
Ringworm
Skin disease: A fungal skin infection commonly affecting the feet, groin, scalp, nails and trunk. Marked by a ring shaped, itchy, reddened, scaly, or blistery patches. Infection may be acquired from another person, an animal, soil, or inanimate objects like chair, shower stall, or carpeting.
Scabies
Skin disease: Common skin infection that causes small itchy bumps or blisters due to tiny mites that burrow into the top layer of human skin to lay their eggs. Symptoms include severe itching worse at night or after a hot bath. Most commonly affect the hands and feet, inner part of the wrists, and folds under the arms.
Impetigo
Skin disease: Caused by bacterial infections (streptococcla and stphylococcal). Shows up as a rash that may occur anywhere on the body and commonly affects the face, nose, and mouth. The rash starts as a red sore and quickly ruptures, oozes, and develops a yellowish-brown crus. Seldom serious. Minor infections sometimes clear in two or three weeks. A complication of impetigo is cellulitis.
Cellulitis
Skin disease: A potentially serious infection affecting tissues underlying your skin and eventually could spread to your lymph nodes and into the blood stream. It could become life threatening and commonly comes from staph.
Staphylococcus
Skin disease: A bacteria that lives harmlessly on the skin, until the skin is broken then entering the wound causing infection. The infection may enter the blood stream attacking the lungs, bones, heart, joints, blood, and central nervous system. May cause MRSA.
Peptic ulcers
A well defined round, or oval sore that occurs where the lining of the stomach or duodenum has been eaten away by stomach acid and digestive juices
Duodenal ulcer
Most common, occurs in the Duodenum. Major cause is helicobacter pylori bacteria. Rarely cancerous. 1/2 suffers from gnawing, burning, aching, soreness, empty feeling and hunger. Pain commonly wakes the person up at 1-2 am. Complications include bleeding due to perforation. *Worse with empty stomach, better with eating.
Gastric ulcer
Less common, usually occurs along the upper curve of the stomach. Caused by drug use. Often cancerous. Symptoms include bloating, nausea, vomiting after eating due to swelling of tissues. Complications include bleeding due to perforation. *Worse with eating, better with empty stomach.
Symptoms of upper GI bleeding
Black tarry and sticky stool (melena)
Malabsoprtion of fats
Due to reduced bile flow.
Causes light/clay colored soft, bulky, foul smelling stool (steatorrhea)
Giardia
Bacteria and intestinal parasite in the digestive tract: A single celled protozan that lives int he small intestine and sometimes in the gall bladder. Diarrhea is the most common symptom. Also light colored fatty stools, gas, abdominal cramps, lactose and meat intolerance, folic acid, fat soluble vitamin deficiencies may also occur. Comes from infected food or water containing cysts or through hand to mouth contact with infected articles like clothes or diapers.
Shigella Bacteria/Bacillary dysentery
Bacteria and intestinal parasite in the digestive tract: Comes from flies that transfer bacteria from infected feces to food in areas where hygiene is poor. Food handlers pass it on. Symptoms are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea with mucus and blood, high fever, abdominal cramps, loss of appetite.
Amebic dysentery
Bacteria and intestinal parasite in the digestive tract: only occurs in hot climates and spreads via contaminated water, raw food, contaminated soil. Symptoms include semifluid or fluid stools that contain blood, mucus, and active trophozoits, fever, constipation, diarrhea, flatulence, and cramping abdominal pain.
Clostridium difficile
Bacteria and intestinal parasite in the digestive tract: A bacterial infection of the colon that occurs primarily among individuals who have been using antibiotics. It is the most common infection acquired by patients while they are in the hospital. This bacterium is found in your colon normally but with the use of antibiotics it comes unbalanced and can over create toxins. Symptoms include diarrhea, cramping, flu like symptoms, weakness, dehydration, fever, nausea, vomiting, blood in stool or feces.
What are the three types of roundworms
Hookworms, pinworms, trichinosis
Hookworms
Parasites. Symptoms include itchy rash that may develop on the feet and last for several days, pica, pain in the stomach, low appetite, constipation. Can cause anemia, cough and pneumonia.
Pinworms
Parasites. Itchy around the anus at night, sleep disturbances that arise from itching or crawling sensations.
Trichinosis
Parasites. Usually acquired by eating undercooked pork or pork products. Mild infestation has no symptoms. Heavy infestation includes diarrhea and vomiting within 1-2 days of eating infested meat. A weak or so later the symptoms are fever, swelling around the eyelids, severe muscle pains.
Tapeworms
Parasites. Typically acquired by eating undercooked fish or meat. Symptoms cause mild abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, constipation, weight loss, anemia.
Acute Appendicitis
Disorder of the bowels and intestines: Inflammation of the appendix. Affects the Right Lower Quadrant. Pain begins near umbilicus and shifts to RLQ, coughing increases pain, rebound pain at McBurney’s point, pain worse with leg lift. Other symptoms include nausea and vomiting. Persistent low grade fever.
IBS
Disorder of the bowels and intestines: Disorder of the motility of entire GI tract. Affects women more than men. GI tract is sensitive to many stimuli. Pain is bouts of continuous dull aches or cramps over the abdomen, ALTERNATING CONSTIPATION AND DIARRHEA WITH PAIN. Pain relieved by bowel movements. Other symptoms include bloating, gas, nausea, headaches, fatigue, depression, anxiety, difficulty concentrating, exacerbated by emotions. Affects the entire GI tract
Crohns’ Disease
Disorder of the bowels and intestines: Chronic inflammation of the intestinal wall. Occurs in the Right Lower Quadrant. Pain is crampy abdominal pain. Other symptoms are CHRONIC DIARRHEA, loss of appetite, weight loss, diarrhea, vomiting, bleeding from the rectum. Affects the SI and LI or the entire GI tract. There is typically fever.
Ulcerative Colitis
Disorder of the bowels and intestines: Chronic inflammation and ulceration of the LI (higher risk of colon cancer). Often begins gradually with mild cramps in the lower abdomen. May have abdominal pain and peritonitis. Inflammation is continuous throughout affected areas. Begins gradually with urgency to defecate, visible blood and mucus in the stool, joint pain, weight loss. May have SUDDEN AND SEVERE ATTACKS OF VIOLENT DIARRHEA. Affects the LI. There is HIGH FEVER.
Diverticulosis
Disorder of the bowels and intestines: PRESENCE OF DIVERTICULA. DIVERTICULUM BULGES AT POINT OF WEAKNESS. Affects the Lower Left Quadrant. Possible episodes of lower abdominal pain. Other symptoms include BLEEDING, GAS, CONSTIPATION, Usually affects the *LI, sigmoid colon.
Diverticulitis
Disorder of the bowels and intestines: Inflammation or infection of one or more of the diverticula. Affects the Lower Left Quadrant. Pain and tenderness. Other symptoms include bleeding and constipation. Usually occurs int he *LI, sigmoid colon. There is FEVER.
Strain
An injury to a muscle or tendon. Physical force exerted so there is an injury.
Sprain
Ligaments are sprained. Traumatic injury to the ligaments or around the joint. Characterized by pain, swelling and discoloration of the skin over the joint.
Rickets
Vitamin D deficiency seen usually in babies and children characterized by abnormal bone formation. Symptoms include bowlegs, knock-knees, enlarged skull, muscle pain, chest deformities, spinal curvature, enlargement of LV and SP
What are the three types of muscles?
Striated - Voluntary or skeletal, move bones, face and eyes
Sooth Muscle - move internal organs
Cardiac muscles - look striated but are like smooth muscles in action
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
Compression of the median nerve, which innervates the palm and radial side of the hand. Numbness of the first three fingers. Phalen’s Test, Tinel sign.
Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
Compression of nerves or blood vessels because of an inadequate passageway through the thoracic outlet between the base of the neck and armpit. Symptoms include neck, shoulder, and arm pain, numbness or impaired circulation to the extremities, which extend to the fingers and hands causing weakness.
Sciatic
Nerve root pain that is shooting and radiates down one or both legs, usually to below the knees, often with associated numbness and tingling and possibly local weakness. Bending, sneezing, coughing, or straining usually worsens the pain.
Adson’s Test
Positive is thoracic outlet syndrome at the scalene triangle. The patient is examined standing. The examiner palpates the radial pulse while moving the upper extremity in abduction, extension, and external rotation. The patient then is asked to rotate her head toward the involved side while taking a deep breath and holding it. A positive exam will result in a diminished or absent radial pulse.
Brudzinksi Sign
An indication usually present in meningitis. Passive flexion of the head on the chest induces flexion of the lower limbs. Or passive flexion of one lower limb induces flexion of the other limb.
Kernig Test
If the test is positive, there is pain and resistance on attempting to extend the leg at the knee with the thigh flexed at the hip. This indicates meningitis which causes severe stiffness of the hamstrings.
Yergason Test
A test for evaluation of biceps tendon injury to determine the stability of the biceps tendon in the bicipital groove. The elbow is flexed to 90 degrees and the patient is asked to resist while externally rotating the arm. The test is positive if this resistance produces pain in the biceps tendon.
PronationSupination of FOrearm
Hold elbow at 90 degree angle for both tests.
Finkelstein Test
Positive test indicates stenosing tenosynovitis (DeQuervain’s disease). Client makes a fist with thumb inside the fingers. Doctor holds the forearm and turns the wrist in the direction of the ulnar side.
Phalen’s Test
Positive test indicates carpel tunnel syndrome. Hold the patient’s wrist in acute flexion 60 seconds or ask the patient to press the back of both hands together to form right angles. These maneuvers compress the median nerve. If numbness and tingling develop over the palmer surface of the thumb, index, and part of the ring finger the sign is positive.
Tinel’s sign
Positive test indicates carpal tunnel syndrome. Tap the median nerve along its course in the wrist. A positive test is found when this causes worsening of the tingling in the fingers.
Straight Leg Test
Straight leg test is for low back pain, osteoarthritis and sciatica. Raise one leg - knee absolutely straight until pain is experienced in the thigh, buttock, and calf.
Braggard’s Test
This test is positive if it produces pain in the spine. Positive test indicates nerve root lesion, disk herniation or sciatica. Straighten the legs and passively dorsiflex the ankle by pushing up on the balls of the feet.
Apley Compression Test
Pain can indicate an injury of either meniscus. The patient is placed prone on the exam table with the knee flexed to 90 degrees. Gently kneel on the back of the thigh to stabilize it while leaning hard on the heel to compress the medial and lateral menisci between the tibia and the femur. Then rotate the tibia internally and externally on the femur as you maintain firm compression. pain on the medial side suggests damaged medial meniscus, and pain on the lateral side suggests damaged lateral meniscus.
McMurray Test
Used to determine a meniscal tear With the patient supine, grasp the knee, place one hand over the top of the knee with the thumb over one joint line and index and middle finger over the opposite joint line. Begin with knee in full flexion and then medially and laterally rotate the tibia while paying attention for an audible click. Then laterally rotate the tibia and extend the knee beyond 90 degrees. An audible click while performing this maneuver can indicate a torn medial meniscus. To examine the lateral meniscus return the knee to full flexion and apply a medial rotation to the tibia prior to extending the knee again.
Anterior Drawer Test
Detects rupture of the anterior cruciate ligaments in the knee. If positive send for an MRI. The patient should be supine withe the hips flexed to 45 degrees, the knees flexed to 90 degrees and the feet flat on the table. Sit on the patient’s feet and grasp the patient’s tibia and pull it forward. If the tibia pulls forward more than normal, the test is considered positive.
Posterior Drawer Test
Detects rupture of the posterior cruciate ligaments in the knee. If positive send for an MRI. The patient should be supine with the hips flexed to 45 degrees, the knees flexed to 90 degrees and the feet flat on the table. Sit on the patient’s feet and grasp the patient’s tibia and pulls it backward. If the tibia pulls backward more than normal, the test is considered positive.
A Patella Injury
Could occur when you fall directly on the knee, or sudden flexion
ACL injury
Could come from running fast then stopping quickly, or stopping when going forward.
PCL injury
Stopping when going backward
Meniscus
Jumping and twisting at the same time
Rotator Cuff Muscles
(SITS) - supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis
Supraspinatus
One of the muscles that abducts the arm
Knee Range of Motion
0 degrees for extension, 135 degrees for flexion, supination 90 degrees, pronation 90 degrees
Athlete’s Triad, Three Common Injuries
Medial Collateral ligament, medial meniscus, anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
Lordosis
An inward curvature of the cervical and lumbar vertebra which are normally lordotic: a curve that is convex anteriorly and concave posteriorly. An accentuation of the normal curve of the spine is called hyper-lordosis, swayback, or saddle black. Loss of lordosis is sometimes seen with painful spinal conditions. If rigid, usually after spinal fusion surgery, it is known as flat back.
Kyphosis
A rounded thoracic convexity - common with aging, especially in women
Scoliosis
A curvature of the spine. Use a plum line from T1 to the gluteal cleft. It is a rotation of the vertebra upon each other. Best seen when flexing forward. Causes include congenital malformation of the spine, poliomyelitis, skeletal dysplasia, spastic paralysis, and unequal leg length.
C5 neurological signs
Bicep reflex
C6 neurological signs
Wrist or brachioradialis reflex
Sensory thumb and 2nd finger
Tricep Reflex
C7 neurological signs
Tricep reflex
Sensory to 3rd fingers
C8 neurological signs
Sensory to 4th/5th fingers
T8-T12 neurological signs
Abdominal reflex upper part and lower part
L2-L4 neurological signs
Patella reflex
L4 neurological signs
Sensory to lateral thigh and ankle
L5 neurological signs
Sensory to lateral calf and big toe, 2nd toe, 3rd toe
L5, S1 neurological signs
Plantar responses
S1 neurological signs
Achilles reflex, sensory to 4th and 5th toes and heels
Gout
Usually an inborn error of uric acid metabolism. Painful swelling of the joint with chills and fever. Can progress to the development of destructive joint changes. More often in men. Usually it affects one or two joints at a time. After menopause gout is more often seen in women. When the uric acid is increased in the blood it is called hyperuricaemia.
Psoriatic Arhritis
Arthritis that is often associated with psoriasis of the skin. It is a chronic skin condition that causes red patches or a rough, scaly type of rash that appears most commonly on the knees, elbows, and scalp. The rash consists of red or silvery grey scaly patches on the skin. Usually psoriasis comes before arthritis. Treated with NSAIDS.
Lyme’s Disease
Caused by ticks, red macule or papule usually on the extremity or on the trunk. Completely round. Most common symptoms are flu like conditions, malaise and fatigue, chills and fever, stiff neck, headache and backache. Some patients within weeks or months develop arthritis.
Rheumatoid Arhtirits
Chronic inflammation of synovial membranes, with secondary erosion of cartilage and bones, damage to tendons and ligaments. Small joints, knobby bumps on knees, arms, elbows, and ankles. They are symmetrically additive. Chronic with remissions and exacerbations. Tender, often warm, but seldom red. Prominent stiffness, often for an hour or more in the morning or after inactivity. General symptoms include weakness, fatigue, weight loss, low fever.
Osteoarthritis
Degeneration and progressive loss of cartilage within the joints, damage to underlying bone and formation of new bone at margins of cartilage. Knees hips, hands, cervical and lumbar spine, wrists, previously injured joints. Additive, only one joint may be involved. Slow, temporary exacerbation after use. Possibly tender, seldom warm, rarely red. Frequent but brief stiffness in the morning and after inactivity. Usually no other symptoms.
The Cardiovascular System
Deoxygenated blood coming from the body enters the RIGHT ATRIUM and flows through the TRICUSPID VALVE into the RIGHT VENTRICLE. When the ventricle contracts it closes the tricuspid valve and forces open the PULMONARY VALVE. This branches immediately, and carries blood to the RIGHT AND LEFT LUNGS. Here the blood gives up carbon dioxide and takes on a clean supply of oxygen. The lungs have capillary beds that are drained by venules, which are branches of the heart. Blood flows from the LEFT ATRIUM through the MITRAL VALVE/BICUSPID VALVE and into the LEFT VENTRICLE. Contraction of the ventricle closes the mitral valve and opens the AORITC VALVE at the entrance to the aorta. The first branches from the aorta occur just beyond the aortic valve still within the heart. Two openings lead to the right and left coronary arteries, which supply the heart itself. The coronary arteries start within the heart and pass directly out to the surface of the heart. They supply blood to the capillaries, which cover every aspect of the heart. The capillaries drain into two coronary veins that empty into the RIGHT ATRIUM.
Tachycardia
Greater than 100 beats/min
Bradychardia
Less than 60 beats/min
Gallop Rhythm
Abnormal rhythm where there are four heart sounds instead of two. Occurs more in men than women and is an indication of heart failure.
Premature Atrial/Nodal Contractions
A beat of atrial/nodal origin that comes earlier than the next normal beat
Premature Ventricular Contractions/ectopic heartbeat
A beat of ventricular origin that comes earlier than the next expected normal beat (skipped beat), and can be relatively common and found in healthy persons of any age. Symptoms are chest pain, faint feeling, fatigue, hyperventilation. Possible causes: smoking, drugs (cocaine), caffeine, mitral valve prolapse, ischemia.
Sinus Arrhythmia
The heart varies cyclically usually speeding up on inspiration and slows down with expiration
Atrial Fibrillation
The ventricle rhythm is irregular, although short runs of the irregular rhythm may see regular. This is the main cause of stroke in elderly people.
Ventricular Fibrillation
Occurs when parts of the ventricles depolarize repeatedly in an erratic, uncoordinated manner. The EKG in ventricular fibrillation shows random, apparently unrelated waves. Usually there is no recognizable QRS complex. Ventricular fibrillation is almost invariably fatal.
P Wave EKG
Atrial depolarization
QRS Complex EKG
Ventricular depolarization
T Wave EKG
Ventricular repolarization
What is blood pressure?
The pressure of blood against the walls of the main arteries
Systole
Pressure measured during the period of ventricular contraction
Diastole
the minimum level of blood pressure measured between ventricular relaxation
Normal blood pressure
120/80 MAX
Prehypertension
139/89 MAX
Stage 1 hypertension
150/99 MAX
Stage 2 Hypertension
160/100 or higher
Essential hypertension
Refers to high blood pressure with no identifiable cause
Portal hypertension
Abnormally high blood pressure in branches of the portal vein, the large vein that brings blood from the intestine to the liver
Secondary hypertension
Elevated blood pressure that results from an underlying, identifiable, often correctable cause. Like genetic disorders. Only 5-10% of the population has this type of hypertension.
Pulmonary hypertension
High blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs which makes the right side need to work harder than normal.
Orthostatic hypotension
Also known as postural hypotension, is a form of hypotension in which a person’s blood pressure suddenly falls when the person stands up. The decrease is typically greater than 20/10 mm HG and may be most pronounced after resting. Increases with age.
CPR steps
1st - opens the airway
2nd - 30 chest thrusts/2 breaths
3rd - Do sequence 4 times, then check for breath/pulse
Deep vein thrombosis
Commonly affects the leg veins or the deep veins of the pelvis. Occasionally the veins of the arm are affected. A DVT can occur without symptoms, but in many cases the affected extremity will be painful, swollen, red, warm and the superficial veins may be engorged. The greatest complication of a DVT is that the clot could be dislodged and travel to the lungs, which is called a pulmonary embolism.
Mesenteric thrombosis
Is a blood clot that blocks off the mesenteric vein located in the tissue connecting the intestine to the back of the abdominal wall. People more at risk have had previous abdominal surgery, blunt abdominal trauma, take estrogen oral contraceptives, have portal hypertension, enlarged spleen, suffer from hyper-coagulable blood, or smoke.
Arteriosclerosis
Over the course of time, the arterial walls are apt to lose elasticity, which limits the amount of blood that can surge through them and hence limits the supply of oxygen to the heart
Artherosclerosis
Fatty deposits, called plaque, may accumulate on the interior surface of the coronary arteries. This is particularly common in people who have high levels of cholesterol in their blood.
Apex
The uppermost part of the lung
Base
The lowest area of the lungs
Lungs
The right lung is slightly larger than the left lung. The right lung has THREE lobes. The left lung has TWO lobes
Alveolar cavity
Where the exchange of O2 and CO2 take place
Cheyne Strokes Respiration
An abnormal pattern of breathing characterized by periods of breathing with gradually increasing and decreasing tidal volume interspersed with periods of apnea. This pattern can be seen in patients with strokes, head injures, or brain tumors or in patients with congestive heart failure. Hospice staff also associated this with irregular breathing as the patient nears death.
Biot’s Respiration
Cluster breathing where groups of breaths tend to be similar in size
Tidal Volume
Amount of air inhaled and exhaled with normal breathing
Vital Capacity
Normal exhalation followed by forcing air out of the lungs
Rhonchi
An abnormal of adventitious sound heard when listening to the chest as the person breathes. This can happen when the airway is partially obstructed owing to secretions, mucosal swelling, or tumor tissue pressing on the passage. Sounds are gurgling noises heard on auscultation of the lungs with a stethoscope during inhalation or exhalation. Patients that have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and acute or severe bronchitis.
Pleural Effusion
An accumulation of fluids between the layers of the tissue that line the lungs and chest cavity. Transudative pleural effusions are caused by fluid leaking into the pleural space because of elevated pressure in, or low protein count in, the blood vessels. Congestive heart failure is the most common cause. Exudative effusions usually result from leaky blood vessel caused by inflammation of the pleura. This is often caused by lung disease. Ex: lung cancer, lung infections such as tuberculosis and pneumonia, drug reactions, abestosis.
Ectopic Pregnancy
Occurs when the baby starts to develop outside of the uterus - most commonly in the fallopian tubes. In rare cases they can occur in the ovary, stomach area, or cervix. Most cases are a result of scarring caused by past ectopic pregnancy, infection, or surgery in the fallopian tubes. Up to 50% of women having ectopic pregnancies have had swelling of the fallopian tubes or pelvic inflammatory disease. Other causes are birth defects of the fallopian tubes, complications of a ruptured appendix, endometriosis, scarring caused by previous pelvic surgery. Symptoms include: abnormal vaginal bleeding, amenorrhea, breast tenderness, low back pain, mild cramping on one side of the pelvis, nausea, pain in the lower abdomen or pelvic area. If the area ruptures and bleeds, symptoms may get worse. Symptoms may include fainting, pain in the shoulder area, severe, sharp, sudden pain in the lower abdomen and shock. Shock is the first symptom of almost 20% of ectopic pregnancies.
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
Inflammation in the pelvic region. Symptoms are vaginal discharge, pain in the abdomen in the early stages and dysmenorrhea, metrorrhagia, and severe tenderness on palpation of the cervix and adnexa. Usually starts with gonoccocal infection.
Endometriosis
Endometrial tissue in abnormal locations, including the ovaries, uterine wall and pelvic peritoneum. Endometriosis could also be associated with dysmenorrhea, pelvic pain, hypermenorrhea (too frequent menstrual periods), sterility, and dyspareunia. Treatment ranges from symptomatic relief of pain to surgical removal of endometrial implants.
Prostate Specific Antigen Test (PSA)
This test measures the level of PSA in the blood.
Less than 4ng/ml is normal.
Between 4-10ng/ml is borderline.
Greater than 10ng/ml is high.
High levels indicate: prostate cancer, prostatitis, recent ejaculation, benign prostatic hyperplasia
Cacinoembryonic Antigen (CEA)
This test is used as a tumor marker for both benign and malignant conditions
HIGH LEVELS INDICATE: colon and rectum, pancreas, stomach, breast, or lung cancer. Certain types of thyroid and ovarian cancer.
Chemotherapy and radiation therapy can cuase a temporary rise in CEA.
Blood tests for rapid detection of heart rate
Creatine Kinase (CK) - 6 hrs after the start of a heart attack. Peaks at 18hrs, returns to normal after 24-36 hours
Alainine Aminotransferase Test (ALT)
Liver Function Test.
High levels indicate: jaundice, liver disease, hepatitis, cirrhosis, infectious mononucleosis
Alkaline Phosphatase high blood levels in absence of elevated GGT can indicate
Bone disease, placenta, intestine
Gamma-Glutamyltranspeptidase high blood levels of Alkaline Phosphatase and GGT indicate
Liver disease, alcohol ingestion, alcoholic liver disease, obstruction of the bile ducts
Bilirubin test high levels indicate
Increased destruction of red blood cells, as in hemolytic anemia. Liver disease, decreased ability of the liver to process blood bilirubin. Gall bladder disease (cancer).
Jaundice
Yellow discoloration of the skin and sclera, caused by abnormally high levels of bilirubin in the bloodstream. Causes: inflammation of other abnormalities of the liver cells hinder the excretion of bile, hemolysis of RBC’s.
Serum Albumin
In liver disease, albumin production is decreased making low blood levels of albumin
Prothrombin Time (PT) measures blood clotting factors
In liver disease, clotting factors are not produced normally
Serum Creatinine
Kidney function test: creatinine is a waste product formed through the body’s metabolism of protein. The serum creatinine test measures the amount of creatinine in the blood. Normal range is 0.6-1.2 miligrams creatinine per deciliter of blood. If the kidneys are not working properly, creatinine is not cleared from the blood, thus the levels rise. Levels greater than 1.2mg/dL can indicate kidney disease.
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)
Kidney function test: another waste product formed through the body’s metabolism of protein. The test is measured by the amount of urea nitrogen in the blood. Normal range is 7-20mg/dL. When the kidneys do not filter properly, urea nitrogen is not cleared from the blood in a normal manner, thus causing BUN levels to rise. Levels greater than 20mg/dL can indicate kidney disease.
Total blood cholesterol levels are as follows
Desirable: less than 200 mg/dL.
Borderline high: 200-239 mg/dL.
High: 240 mg/dL
High density lipoprotein or HDL levels
Low HDL (increased risk of heart disease): less than 40mg/dL. High HDL (reduced risk of heart disease): higher than 60mg/dL
Low density lipoprotein or LDL levels
Desirable: Below 100mg/dL
Borderline high: 130-159 mg/dL
High: 160 mg/dL
Total cholesterol to HDL ratio
Desirable: Below 5 to 1
Optimal: 3.5-1
Triglycerides levels
Normal: Less than 200mg/dL
Borderline: 200-400mg/dL
Complete blood count (CBC)
This tests red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Normal white blood cell counts are 5,000 to 10,000. An increase suggests inflammation or infection. Normal red blood cell counts for MEN are 5-6 mil, for WOMEN are 3.6-5.6 mil. A decrease suggests inflammation.
Hematocrit
PACKED cell volume used to determine anemia or polycythemia
Hemoglobin
Part of the CBC. Vehicle for transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide, used to determine anemia or polycythemia.
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)
Blood test: blood sample in tube to determine how fast the red blood cells settle to the bottom in one hour. Normal rate is 20 mm in one hour. Inflammation makes the red cells clump together and fall faster, significantly increasing the rate. May indicate arthritis.
Rheumatoid Factor (RF)
Blood test: antibody found in usually large amounts of patients with RA. The higher the concentration, the more severe the RA. It may take many months to show and only 85% of patients with RA will have the RF.
PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)
Blood test
Increased: primary hyperparathyroidism, secondary hyperparathyroidism
Decreased: Hypercalcemia not due to hyperparathyroidism, hypoparathyroidism
TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone)
Blood Test
Increased: hypothyroidism
Decreased: Hyperthyroidism, thyrotoxicosis
HLA typing
Blood Test
White blood cells may be typed for the presence of HLA-B27. A common test in medical centers for transplants. It is also a genetic marker for some forms of arthritis.
Antinuclear Antibody (ANA)
This test is used especially for Lupus, and for certain rheumatic diseases. It tests for antibodies to the nucleus or command center of the body’s cells. Blood serum is placed on a slide and a fluorescent dye is added, which binds to the antibodies. Under the microscope, abnormal antibodies can be seen binding to the nuclei. This is a positive or negative test.
Type A blood contains which antigens
A antigen and anti-B antibody
Type B blood contains which antigens
B antigen and anti-A antibody
Type AB blood contains which antigens
A and B antigens and no anti-A or anti-B antibodies
Type 0 blood contains which antigens
Contains no A or B antigens and both anti-A and anti-B antigens.
AB blood contains which antigens
Universal recipients
Has neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies
Elisa Test (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Assay)
Fluorescent immuno-assay adheres to a specific antibody. If that antibody reacts to its corresponding antigen, it glows. Elisa test is used to screen for Lyme Disease, EBC, Hepatitis, HIV, Herpes Simplex Virus. If an Elisa screening test comes back positive, then it is usually followed up by the Western Blot Test, which either confirms the positive or comes back negative.
Platelet count adults
140/400
Platelet count children
150/450
What is a sweat test used for
Cystic Fibrosis
HCG test is for
Pregnancy
Dick test is for
Scarlet fever
Schick test is for
Diptheria
Specific Gravity
Indicates a normal urine concentration ability. A low restful may indicate sickle cell disease or diabetes insipidus.
When hydrogen ion concentration increases in the blood the pH
decreases
When the hydrogen ion concentration decreases in the blood the pH
increases
Respiratory acidosis results from
the failure of the Lungs to remove CO2
Metabolic acidosis results from
the failure of the Kidneys to remove H+ ions
Carbonic acid bicarbonate buffer
The most important buffer in the blood to maintain acid-base balance
Phosphate buffer
Plays a minor role in regulating the pH in the blood
Hemoglobin buffer
Also plays a minor role as a pH buffer in the blood
