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Biology - Laurent Flashcards

1
Q

Why is anatomy needed to properly manage a vineyard

A

-how to regulate the number of bunches (bud fruitfulness/fruiting intensity)
-how to regulate canopy structure (type of bud/pruning selection)
-when/where to spray chemicals (phenology/spraying efficiency)
-how to graft/prepare cuttings (rooting,graft union/shoot anatomy)

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2
Q

How do monopodial plants grow

A

Upwards from a terminal point. At each cycle - growth resumes from terminal buds
(conifer trees)

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3
Q

How do sympodial plants grow

A

Outwards from auxillary meristems. The main stem ceases to elongate at the end of each cycle and growth resumes from lateral meristems (branching shrubs)

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4
Q

Does the grapevine have a monopodial or sympodial growing system

A

both; it has a sympodial system, but it behaves as a monopod
-the cultivated vine is redesiged architecture

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5
Q

Location and function of the terminal bud (AKA apex, or SAM)

A

shoot tip, primary growth and development

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6
Q

Location, function, and characteristics of the prompt bud

A

axillary (between the main shoot and a petiole), grows the lateral shoot,
-immediate growth after creation
-low fruitfulness
-lacking ripness compared to others
-same structure as main shoot
-typically cannot lignify
(every node can develope a lateral shoot)

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7
Q

Location, function, and characteristics of the winter or latent bud

A

axillary to the lateral shoot (between main shoot and petiole), delayed growth
-bud for next year
-develops with lateral shoot
-three scales cover it to protect
-turns brown when fully developed
-starts dormancy before plant

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8
Q

Location and function of the basal buds

A

cane base - auxillary to scales,
unknown function
-SAM reestablishement
-low fruit fertility
-no node separation between buds
-buds do not follow the same phyllotaxi as main shoot buds

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9
Q

SAM

A

shoot apical meristem

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10
Q

Location and function of old buds (woody buds)

A

perennial parts = trunk and arms (suckers),
unknown function
-SAM reestablishment
-can be useful if damage occurs to other buds
-can be used to renew trunks/cordons
-low fruit fertility
-“sucker” = uses energy but doesn’t contribute fruit

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11
Q

What buds need to be considered to manage the canopy organization and yield regulation?

A

all of them; terminal buds, lateral shoot buds, winter/latent buds, basal buds, and old buds

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12
Q

What are adventitious roots

A

roots that form from non root tissue in response to stress

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13
Q

What is phyllotaxis

A

the study of plant arrangement pattern

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14
Q

What is the phyllotaxis of the grapevine’s main shoots

A

alternate distichous

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15
Q

What type of phyllotaxis do the lateral shoots have

A

the same as the main shoots; alternate distichous, but front to back instead of left to right (a 90° rotation)

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16
Q

How many nodes are developed in the winter bud

A

8 - 10

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17
Q

What types of buds develope after winter pruning

A

-term buds/regular buds
-basal buds
-old buds

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18
Q

Do all buds on a cane have the same fruitfulness?

A

No, depending on the variety, buds have varying fruitfulness (it is typically higher in the buds on the middle of the cane)

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19
Q

Will the buds on a second year sucker be fruitful

A

yes, they will have the same fruitfulness as the others from regular shoots

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20
Q

What are the months canopy hedging is done. What are the implications of these months

A

May, June, July, and August
May = very early; lateral shoots producing fruit with uneven ripeness
June = normal
July & August = late but preferred months; plant will focus on ripening instead of growth

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21
Q

Factors impacting bud fruitfulness

A

-cultivar
-bud type (terminal, basal, old, lateral, latent)
-bud location (rank on cane)
-climate during year 1 - development
-climate during year 2 - growth
-vine vigour (soil nutrients, pathogens, source/sink ratio)
-vineyard practices (pruning, hedging)

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22
Q

How does the climate effect the bud in year 1 versus year 2

A

Year 1: inflorescence or tendril differentiation
Year 2: size and amount of berries

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23
Q

Apical dominance

A

determines bud growth priority
-during green growth,
-between buds of different ranks
-which is stronger
-caused by hormone auxin

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24
Q

Acrotony

A

determines bud growth priority
-when growth resumes (after green or winter pruning)
-between buds of same ranks

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25
What happens if the SAM is suppressed by being cut off or broken
apical dominance shifts to acrotony on lateral shoots. lateral shoots near tip grow long while the lower ones stay shorter
26
What is a liana
a grapevine; a long-stemmed, woody vine that is rooted in the soil at ground level and uses trees, and other vertical support, to climb up to the canopy in search of direct sunlight.
27
How can you mitigate acrotony during pruning
-cane prune and bend the canes in U shape -spur prune
28
What is Cyanamide
product used to break bud dormancy
29
How can you reduce lateral shoot branching
-delay hedging -use wire shoot lifts
30
What is the difference between a terminal bud on other flowering trees compared to the terminal bud of a grapevine
terminal buds on fruiting trees go dormant in the winter and then grow from that bud's apical meristem again in the spring. grapevines terminal bud's apical meristems die each season, and growth the following spring comes from lateral shoot buds
31
Fixed shoot growth
elongation of internodes and the expansion of leaves which were preformed in the dorant bud. up to 12 nodes
32
Free shoot growth
elongation of a shoot by continuois production of new leaf primordia by the apical meristem
33
What are the two functions of the apical meristem
production of new organs and production of new tissues
34
What turns roots brown
from oxidation of phenols released from the vacuoles of dead or colapsed epidermal cells
35
Meristem
undifferentiated cells capable of cell division, located in the cambium
36
What are the three primary meristems and what will they form
-the protoderm: will become the epidermis -the ground meristem: forms the ground tissues comprising parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells (pith and cortex) -the procambium: will become the vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
37
What forms the three primary meristems
the apical meristem
38
What are the three types of roots
-seeding root - primary/radicular root (becomes tap root) -secondary root - branching -cutting root - adventitious organs
39
What are the two contributors to root elongation
mitosis and elongation
40
Rootcap formation
column of meristematic cells in the interior divide and push the derivative cells outward. these cells reduce friction and hygroscopic mucilage is produced
41
Sclerenchyma cells
-thick-walled cells, usually lignified -tissue enables plant organs to withstand strains from stretching, bending, weight, and pressure while protecting thin-walled cells.
42
Parenchyma
-forms the bulk of plant ground tissue -function; photosynthesis, storage, or transport. -provides a route of exchange for materials within and between the xylem and the phloem
43
What are the three phases of root growth
1: colonisation (7-8 years) - emission of roots, elongation and ramification during year 2, determined by vigor/environment 2: adult age (15-20 years) - elongation slows down, exploration improved due to laterals formed annually 3: senescence (? years) - due to increasing complexity of vascular tissues & mutations/parasites, decreases ability to for laterals, coincides with reduction of biological activity in aerial part
44
What are the four primary factors for root growth and development
1. genotype 2. geotropism (growth in response to the force of gravity) 3. hydrotropism (the growth/turning of roots towards or away from moisture) 4. oxygenotropism (the growth of a plant in the direction of air or oxygen)
45
What three things does sustainable viticulture need to be sucessful
1. technically affordable 2. economically profitable 3. environmentaly friendly
46
What are the three physical production factors that need to be considered for viticulture? explain their specifics
1. Abiotic: pedology (soil), topography, climate 2. Biotic: pest, disease, weeds 3. Genotype: scion, clone, rootstock
47
Strategy to improve
-select ideotypes (traits desired) -phynotypic diversity (where to find them) -implementation: clonal/ariety selection, non-local/old varieties, genetic innovation (new variety - crossbreeding or biotechs)
48
Genome
genetic material in a single cell
49
Where is DNA located
mainly in the nucleus, but also in the chloroplasts and mitochondrion
50
Is a genome and genotype the same thing?
No; -the genome is the organism's ensemble of genes (in a single cell). -the genotype is the individual organism's unique set of all the genes (genetic profile)
51
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid; carries genetic information in all multicellular forms of life. It carries instructions for the creation of protiens, which carry out a wide range of roles
52
What holds DNA together
hydrogen bonds between bases on adjacent strands with nucleotides Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
53
What are the nucleotide bases for DNA and how are they paired
ATGC adenine always pairs with thymine guanine always pairs with cytosine
54
Explain how DNA becomes protien instructions
The ATGC bases along a single strand of DNA act as three letter codes - each code is a building block for protiens. The enzyme RNA transcribes DNA into mRNA (messenger RNA) by unzipping the two strands of DNA and reading/copying the single strand sequence nucleotides. mRNA replaces the Thymine with another base Uracil. The mRNA carries the genetic code out of nucleus and to the cytoplasm - protein synthesis takes place by ribosomes
55
genetic translation
process of converting mRNA code into proteins
56
What does diploid mean
-the presence of two complete sets of chromosomes in an organism's cells, with each parent contributing a chromosome to each pair. -1 locus = 2 genes
57
How many chromosomes do grapevines have
n=19 or 20 2n= 38 or 40
58
What is tetraploid and what effect would it have on a grapevine
-four chromosomes (4n), -berry size increases
59
Locus
location of a gene, each loci has 2 alleles on each diploid chromosome
60
Gene
segments of DNA, functional sequences, very long, give physical characteristics
61
In diploid chromosomes, one locus has how many genes
2, one on each allele
62
Allele
-a version of a gene sequence at a specific location, -a parental sequences (one side of DNA is mothers and the other side fathers)
63
Genetic diversity is based on ________________ changes
nucleotide sequence
64
Mutation
modification in the nucleotide sequence, heterogenous
65
How many amino acids make up a protein
200-300
66
What is a DNA point mutation
occurs in a genome when a single base pair is added, deleted or changed
67
What is a DNA silent mutation
occur when the change of the DNA sequence within a protein-coding portion of a gene does not affect the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein.
68
What are the two types of cell division? Explain them
1. Mitosis: cells increase with no changes of DNA (quantity and quality) 2. Meiosis: cells increases with a change and reduction in DNA content per cell - produces gametes
69
How do grapevine cells divide
both mitosis and meiosis. -during vegetative growth they undergo mitosis -during sexual reproduction they undergo meiosis.
70
The difference between homozygous and heterozygous genes
Homozygous: the same version of the gene from each parent = two matching genes, identical Heterozygous: a different version of a gene from each parent = many different possible combinations, different
71
Are grapevine genes homozygous or heterozygous
heterozygous = many different version of genes when crossbreeding (homozygocity hasn't been found yet)
72
Phynotype
observable trait
73
Explain dominant genes
the relationship between alleles of one gene in which the effect on the phenotype of one allele masks the contribution of the second allele (at the same locus). dominant over recessive.
74
What are the three types of dominant genes
-semi-dominance: a blending of two alleles = a third phenotype different from the parents -super dominance: holding a position of absolute dominance -heterosis: hybrid interaction! canceling of deleterious/inferior recessive alleles contributed by one parent, by beneficial or superior dominant alleles contributed by the other parent in the heterozygous genotypes at different loci
75
What type of gene dominance is used in hybrids
heterosis: canceling of deleterious/inferior recessive alleles contributed by one parent, by beneficial or superior dominant alleles contributed by the other parent in the heterozygous genotypes at different loci
76
Non-Mendelian inheritance
the inheritance of traits that have a more complex genetic basis than one gene with two alleles and complete dominance
77
Where is DNA stored and what parents does it come from
-DNA in the nucleau comes from both parents -DNA in the chloroplasts and the mitochondrions come from the mother ONLY
78
By crossing _________ you increase the heterozygous effect
two different varieties
79
Hereditary equation
Vp = Vg + Ve + Vge Variation Phenotypic: Vp Variation Genetic: Vg Variation Environmental: Ve Genetic-Environmental Interaction: Vge
80
Broad-Sense Heritability, what do the values of H2 signify
H2 = Vg/Vp -If H2 = 0, then none of the phenotypic variance is caused by genetic variance. -If H2 = 1, then the phenotypic variance is 100% caused by genetic variance.
81
Which chromosome determines grape color, and which is dominant
number 2, red fruit color is dominant
82
Genotype versus Phenotype
-genotype: sum of genetic info = chromosomes, DNA, nucleotides, gene structure -phenotype: sum of resulting traits FROM GENETICS AND ENVIRONMENT = structural properties, enzymatic function, morphology, phenolic attributes, adaptation to environment
83
A genotype can have ________________ depending on the environment
different phenotypes
84
Mendelian traits: how many genes, what is means, and examples
Mono locus (single gene) One allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype reflects the dominant allele. Ex: run1 & rpv1, diglucosides of anthocyanins
85
Semi-quantitative genetic traits: how many genes, what is means, and examples
Mono or pluri-loci (few genes). phenotype variation among individuals Ex: flower sex, berry color, aromas, seedlessness
86
Quantitative genetic traits: how many genes, what is means, and exampless
Pluri-loci (several genes) phenotypic variation among individuals. Ex: phenological stages, yield, acidity, mildew tolerance
87
What types of genetic trait is berry skin color -Mendelian trait -Semi-quantitative trait -Quantitative trait
semi-quantitative trait -5 or 6 anthocyanins in grapes -concentration of anthocyanins changes color -sugars linked to anthocyanin color and stability
88
Wines with monoglucoside anthocyanins were ______ color stable to heat and light than wines with diglucoside pigments
less
89
What is an anthocyanin and where are they derrived from
-color pigment and antioxidant -glucosides of the anthocyanidins, flavonoid derivatives produced via the phenylpropanoid pathway. -color and stability of pigments influenced by: pH, light, temperature, and structure. Low pH = red, High pH = blue, then become unstable and brown
90
____________ anthocyanins are highly UNdesirable in wine maturation and aging chemistry (susceptible to browning/loss of color)
diglucoside
91
Which type of anthocyanins do Vitis vinifera product -monoglucoside -diglucoside
monoglucoside
92
When reading breeding charts, how are the vine sexes ordered, ____ x _____ = new variety
variety on left is female and the right is male
93
What is the more dominant gene -monoglucoside -diglucoside
diglucoside
94
What type of trait is the mono/di glucoside
mendelian trait
95
Syrah x Pinot N = ? what color Syrah color gene: R/r, Pinot N color gene: R/r R=anthocyanins, r=no anthocyanins What is the percentage of the outcome
..........R r
96
What is the critical gene needed for color
MybA gene
97
____ is the main regulator of the anthocyanin pathway.
MybA gene
98
_____ can be affected by a virus and change the color of the grapes
MybA gene
99
Nuclear effect versus maternal effect
gene effect from father, gene effect from mother
100
Which types of traits can be mapped
quantitative traits
101
What are the steps in breeding without genetic molecular markers
-breeding: allele re-distribution and chromosomal re-combination -segregating traits in progenies -individual performance evaluation (phenotyping)
102
What are the disadvantages to breeding without molecular markers
-lengthy process -random recombinations hazards -difficult to combine several traits in a single step -poor efficiency due to Environment and GxE (genetics x environment)
103
Run1
powdery mildew resistant gene (uncinula necator)
104
Rpv1
downy mildew resistant gene (plasmopara viticola)
105
Muscadina rotundfolia has what two resistant genes
Run1 & Rpv1
106
What is a molecular genetic marker
a fragment of DNA sequence that is associated to a part of the genome
107
What are the three types of molecular markers
-biochemical (change in sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule) -molecular (difference in DNA nucleotide sequence that is linked to a target gene that expresses a trait) -morphological (by sight)
108
Types of biochemical breeding marker tests
isozyme, protein banding patters
109
Types of molecular marker tests
Based on hybridization SNP: single nucleotide polymorphisms SSR: simple sequence repeats (less used)
110
How do PCR tests work
sample is heated over and over again (30 times), DNA duplicates, then a loci is analyzed
111
112
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