Anatomy & Genetics - Paolo Flashcards
1
Q
Tendrils and inflorescences are generally considered ________________ on the
basis of morphological, anatomical, and physiological similarities.
A
homologous
- similar in position, structure, and origin, but not in function. Same structural features and pattern of genes.
2
Q
The individual flowers
on an inflorescence are _______________ with the separate floral organs originating from
___________________________.
A
modified shoots,
highly modified leaves
3
Q
Flowers normally occur
in groups of
A
3 (triad) or
5 (dichasium)
4
Q
How many flowers per cluster?
A
100-2000
5
Q
Steps after flower fertilization:
A
- the embryo begins to form and
- the ovary wall thickens and begins to form the pericarp.
- the stigma has dried and soon the stamens will wither and drop.
6
Q
A grape berry can have a
maximum of_____ seeds,
although in practice the seed
number is usually ________
A
four,
one or two
7
Q
The ________forms the grape’s dermal system, or ‘skin’
A
exocarp
8
Q
After the initial formation of the berry, what protects the it from water loss and pathogen invasions?
A
Epicuticular waxes cover the surface of the cuticle
forming a strongly hydrophobic layer
9
Q
What is the berry mesocarp, how many cell layers does it have, and what is its purpose
A
The ‘flesh’ or ‘pulp’ of the grape berry, consists of 25 to 30 layers of thin-walled and highly vacuolated
storage parenchyma cells.
10
Q
The vascular bundles that previously served the ovary
after berry-set give rise to
A
a complex network of vascular traces that supply the seed and the pericarp.
11
Q
Describe the five main characteristics of the grapevine
A
-woody
-perennial (lives for several years)
-polycarpic (fruits for many years)
-deciduous (loses leaves)
-climber
12
Q
What are the 4 main functions of the roots
A
-Physical support for the plant
- Water and nutrient uptake
- Storage organ of carbohydrates and nutrients
- Source of plant hormones (cytokinins, ABA)
13
Q
What are the three main hormones in the roots and what is their purpose
A
Cytokinin: promotes cell division,cell growth, and cell differentiation.
Auxin: apical dominance and can influence gene expression
Absisic Acid: regulated stress responce, especially with water deficit
14
Q
What is the phototropic response and what causes it
A
The phototropic response is when the plant moves in the direction of the sun. The plant growth hormone Auxin builds up on the shady side of the plant due to chemical transporters of Auxin are affected by sunlight.
15
Q
In vegetatively propagated vines, primary roots originate from the ______________ of woody cuttings.
A
cambium layer
16
Q
What are adventitious roots and where do they form
A
Plant roots that form from any nonroot tissue. They form near the nodes, but they also grow on the internodes. Occur durring normal development or a stress responce. Roots arising from wood cuttings.
17
Q
The number and placement of roots depends on
A
The water and nutrient availability in the soil
18
Q
Roots arising from wood cuttings are what type of roots
A
adventitious
19
Q
Main roots develop from __________
whereas lateral/secondary roots develop from ____________
A
a directly cutting,
other roots
20
Q
Lateral roots initiation happens where
A
in the unbranched apical zone and on older parts of the roots
21
Q
Which is larger, the root system or the leaf canopy
A
root system
22
Q
Where do the majority of the root grow
A
in the top 50 cm of soil
23
Q
Which soil type will have higher root development and why? Clay or Sand
A
Sandy soils will cause the grapevine to grow more roots due to the fact that sand has a low water holding ability and the roots will constantly need to grow in order to find water
24
Q
Compare the rooting depth of rootstocks V. riparia and V. rupestris
A
V. riparia roots are shallow (think river bed) while V. rupestris roots are deeper in the soil.
V. rupestris has a higher drought tolerance due to deeper roots.
25
Function of the root tip Elongation zone
cell expansion and differentiation
26
What tissue is in the root tip
meristematic tissue
27
What is the function of the root cap
Protects the tip, has gravity sensors, and produces polysaccharide-rich mucilage
28
What is the purpose of root exceted mucilage
The mucilage is a polysaccharide rich substance that feeds the mycellium fungi within the soil, contributing to their symbyotic relationship. The plant and the fungus exchange mucilage for nutrients and water
29
What are the two transmembrane pathways roots use to uptake water through the cells in the cortex (to get the water to the xylem). Explain them
The symplast and apoplast routes combine to form the transmembrane pathway.
Apoplast pathway - water moves through the spaces between the cells and in the cells walls themselves.
Symplast pathway - water flows between cells through plasmodesmata without crossing the plasma membrane.
30
What happens to the apoplast pathway at the endodermis?
The casparian strip blocks the apoplast pathway, forcing the water to move through the cell membrane and into the stele via the symplast pathway
31
What is mycorrhiza
a network that connects plants and fungi below ground and helps with nutrient and water uptake.
32
What forms the root vascular cambium and what are the main functions of the vascular cambium
Procambial cells develop into the vascular cambium, which retains its meristematic character and forms a continuous sleeve within the root-shoot axis
33
What is responsible for the formation of the secondary xylem, secondary phloem, and the radial growth of the roots
the vascular cambium
34
What causes cambium reactivation in the spring
root-derived cytokinin in response to auxin flowing down from the swelling buds.
35
What give roots their brownish color
The deposition of suberine in the cork cell walls and the oxidation of phenolics
36
Where is the cork cambium formed and what does it form
in the pericycle, which later forms
- cork toward the outside
- secondary cortex, phelloderm toward the inside
37
What are the functions of the trunk
-support for the growing vine
-water, nutrient, and assimilate transport
-storage organ for carbohydrates and nutrients
38
Because of its ___________, grapevines need
a training system (unless trained closed to the
ground)
liana nature
39
What are the types of pruning
-Spur pruning
-Cane pruning
40
What is a node
the point of insertion of lateral organs on the shoot
41
What is the difference between a grapevine seedling's phyllotaxy compared to an adult grapevine's phyllotaxy
The grapevine seedling's (less than four leaves)
phyllotaxy is spiral (2/5), no tendrils
The adult grapevine has distic phyllotaxy (1/2), leaves opposite to tendrils/inflorescence
42
What is the phyllotaxy of primary shoots originating from buds
always 1/2 phyllotaxy
43
What are the two types of shoot growth, explain where they are formed
-fixed growth (leaf primordia pre-formed
during bud development and is responsible
for the rapid growth of the first 6-12 leaves)
-free growth (production of new leaf
primordia in the shoot’s apical meristem)
44
What is the pattern of shoot organs
-First 2-3 nodes usually only leaves
-Next 2 nodes generally clusters and leaves opposite
-Followed by 1 node with a leaf only
-Next two tendrils (possible cluster) with leaves opposite
-Followed by 1 node with leaf only
-Repeat tendrils & leaves, skipping every third
45
Which species of Vitis has a unique phyllotaxy with a tendrils and leaves always on the same side?
Vitis labrusca
46
The epidermis develops a ___________ on its outer cell walls as a protective layer of all above-ground organs.
waxy cuticle
47
Above-ground organs have these three physical characteristics
stomata, various types of hair, and pearl glands
48
What are collenchyma strands, where is it differentiated from, and what does it do
collencyma strands are cell walls of cellulose, differentiated from parenchyma cells (below the epidermis), and the strengthen the growing shoot
49
What are amyloplasts and where are they highly concentrated
specialized plastids modified for starch storage, and highly concentrated in the endodermis
50
What are pearl or sap balls
small, transparent drops of liquid containing protien, sugar, and oil on the epidermis of tendrils, petioles and leaves.
function unknown
51
procambium versus cambium
-procambium is meristematic tissue of the vascula system which develops the cambium (in primary structures)
-cambium is the continuous cyliners of meristematic cells responsible for producing new vasular tissues (in secondary structures)
52
Intrafascicular cambium versus Interfascicular cambium
-Intrafascicular cambium produces secondary phloem
toward the outside and secondary xylem toward the inside.
-Interfascicular cambium forms parenchyma cells that
become the rays separating the conducting tissues (spreads it wider between xylem/phloem)
53
What three things form the periderm in the shoot
phellem = cork
phellogen = cork cambium
phelloderm = parenchyma like tissue
54
What forms the cork cambium and what does it produce
Some secondary phloem cells form a cork cambium (phellogen) which produces
-cork towards the outside (phellem)
-phelloderm, towards the inside (parenchyma like tissue)
55
How does a shoot become a cane? Explain the process
The periderm, along with the outermost layers of secondary phloem die, turn brown and lignify
56
Explain how dead bark rhytidome is sloughed off in spring after dormancy
The vascular cambium resumes function and a new
phellogen (cork cambium) is formed.
The new phellogen isolates most of the secondary phloem produced in the previous season.
The dead phloem + old periderm is sloughed off as strips of dead bark rhytidome.
57
Explain what phellogen is and what forms to its inside and outside
Phellogen = cork cambium:
a dividing zone of cells that forms phellem to the outside and phelloderm to the inside
58
What type of cells make up the pith
parenchyma
59
What is the shoot diaphram and what is its purpose
A semi-permeable, wooden bridge/septum located at the node, made of hard, thickened pith cells with
sclerified cell walls.
Controls the flow of certain substances, allows them to flow in only one direction, and may aid in directing water and nutrients into the leaves
60
How does xylem and phloem move through the plant?
Xylem - root pressure or tension pull (negative pressure) osmosis in roots to get to xylem vessels
Phloem - high turgor pressure (source to sink) (positive pressure), translocation
61
Describe prompt buds
AKA lateral buds: can brake during the current
season and give lateral shoots.
62
Describe dormant buds
-Remain dormant until the following spring.
-It containes three separated buds.
-Gives rise to 8-10 leaf primordia and their prompt buds, inflorescence primordia, and several tendril primordia before entering dormancy.
63
Describe latent buds
Latent buds remain dormant for several years.
64
Describe crown buds, the main crown bud, and count buds
Crown buds: located in a whorl spiral at the base of the cane, with insignificant internode elongation
Main crown bud: AKA bourillon, the largest of the crown buds
Count buds: buds you count when pruning
65
Typically where are the most fruitful buds on a cane
In the middle, but really depends on the variety
66
What are cotyledones
The first leaves that emerge from the embryo during seed germination, and fall off soon after sprouting
Monocotyledon - 1 leaf
Dicotyledon - 2 leaf (V. vinifera)
67
Are grapevine seeds monocotyledones or dicotyledones
Dicotyledone AKA dicot
68
What is the purpose of bud scales
to protect them from water loss and mechanical injury.
69
What is a leaf's lamina
The leaf blade
70
What is considered leaf foliage
Leaf lamina, a petiole, and a pair of stipules
at the base of petiole.
71
What are leaf stipules
Small leaves at the base of the petiole
72
What does the petiol connect and which direction does it grow
connects the lamina to the stem.
grows toward the light to position the leaf for optimal
sunlight interception.
73
How many vascular budles does the petiol have
12-14 vascular bundles
74
Explain what the petiol abscission layer is and what hormone causes it
Abscission is the dropping of the lamina and petiol from the stem in autumn.
The hormone auxin produced in the lamina prevents abscission throughout the growing season.
In autumn, a decrease in production of auxin stimulates a breakdown in the abscission zone causing the petiol to fall.
75
Where is the abscission layer in the petiol
one on each end of the petiol
76
What is the purpose of the lamina
It captures sunlight for energy production and CO2
for carbohydrate production to support vine metabolism and growth.
77
What is leaf expansion controled by
genetics & the environment
78
Why are leaves wide, thin, and what are they vulnerable to
Wide to maximize light absorption
Thin to maximize gas exchange
Vulnerably to overheating and dehydration
79
What are leaf hydatodes
The tracheids of terminal veins (water pores that may function as overflow valves that can rid the leaves of excess water)
80
What is leaf guttation, when does it happen happen, and how
-secretion of droplets of water from leaf pores
-during warm nights with high humidity
-root pressure may force water up the vine.
81
Transpiration
Respiration
Photosynthesis
Transpiration = soil H2O -> air (think sweating) (day and night)
Respiration = O2 + sugar in -> CO2 out = ATP energy
(Day and night) (think breathing)
Photosynthesis = Light + CO2 in -> O2 + sugar out (Daytime only)
82
What are trichomes and what is their function
hair-like structure part of the epidermal tissue on leave
-reduce water loss,
-deter insects,
-provide protection from UV radiation
83
Leaf adaxial versus abaxial
adaxial is the upper side of the leaf
abaxial is the under side of the leaf
(think B is for back of leaf)
84
What are the 5 main functions of the leaf cuticle and epidermis
* keeps the leaves clean by reducing adhesion of water and particles,
* reduces nutrient leaching from the leaves.
* forms the first barrier to invading pathogens.
* protects the plant from desiccation.
* provides mechanical support.
85
The _____________ of the leaf cuticle and epidermis restricts gas diffusion, so that most water vapor and other gases must pass through openings called ______________
waxy cuticle, stomata
86
Name the 7 distinct developmental stages of the vine
Dormancy
Budbreak
Bloom, anthesis, flowering
Fruit set
Veraison
Ripeness or maturity
Leaf fall
87
What is vine bleeding and what soil temperature initiates it
Exudation of xylem sap from pruning surfaces, signifying the transition from dormancy to active growth.
Soil temperature > 7 °C
88
The vegetative cycle begins at what atmospheric temperature
> 10°C
89
The initial growth (shoots and roots) is entirely dependent on ____________.
nutrient reserves stored in the trunk
90
The trunk reserves are typically depleted at this stage of development.
What is the implication of this depletion
around bloom.
the vine is vulnerable to stress due to lack of reserves
91
The berry skin exocarp is what three components
cuticle, epidermis, hypodermis
92
Location of flowers on rachis can flower at different times, why?
Where do flowers tend to flower last
-the level and reach of the carbohydrates
-flowers at the tip of the rachis
93
Stenospermocarpy sexual reproduction
-sperm enters ovary
-but endosperm not produced
-fertilization happens
-imperfect/small seeds
94
Paethenocarpy sexual reproduction
-genetic
-fertilization not possible
-no endosperm, no zygote
-pollination happens but no fertilization
-contact of tube with pollen stimulates growth
95
Milerandage
Chicks and Hens
-pollen comes into stigma but tube is not produced
-berries stay green
96
what stimulates anthocyanins in red grapes for veraison
sugars, when they are greater than 10 Brix
97
What effect will irrigating have on green berries
berry size will increase because cells are dividing
98
Explain osmosis
-water movement from an area of high solvent (water) concentration to low solvent (water) concentration.
-low solute to high solute (what's dissolved)
-continues until equilibrium between the two regions is attained
99
What are the two cycles of annual growth for the grapevine
vegetative and a reproductive cycle
100
What is the equation to calculate GDD
[(Tmax - 10) + (Tmin - 10)] / 2
101
What is the calyx
fused 5 sepals at outer edge/base of the flower, used to protect the flower during formation
102
What is the calyptra
fused petals surrounding flower parts
103
What is the flower stamen
the male reproductive organs; anther and filament
104
What is the flower pistil
the female reproductive organs; stigma, style, ovary
105
Turgor pressure
Turgor pressure is the force within the cell that pushes the plasma membrane against the cell wall
- water moving from the low concentration solute outside the cell into the cell's vacuole.
Low turgor = dehydration (first sign)
106
What happens with the flow of xylem and phloem into the berry after veraison
there is a shift from xylem flowing into the berry to phloem flowing for sugar accumulation
107
Is the sugar content of a sink high or low, and how does that affect the movement of the source
the sink has low sugar concentration, causing the flow of the source to move towards it
108
As the source is on the way to the sink, what happens to its solute concentration
it is lowered as parenchyma cells use some sugars as it passes through them towards the sink
109
In what directions do xylem and phloem move
xylem: up only (transpirational pull and root pressure)
phloem: up and down (towards sink)
110
What does the berry callus do and cause
it does not keep sugars in it, so the berry continues to be a sink
phloem typically moves through the symplast, but due to callus scars at the berry connection to pedicel, the phloem cannot enter so it moves through the apoplast
111
Explain how sugar source from leaves moves to sink
At the leaf source, sugar molecules are moved into the phloem cells (sieve elements) through active diffusion transport. Water follows the sugar molecules into the sieve elements through osmosis (since water passively diffuses into regions of higher solute concentration).
112
Active versus passive transport
In Active diffusion transport the molecules are moved across the cell membrane, pumping against the concentration gradient, using ATP (energy).
In Passive diffusion transport, the molecules are moved within and across the cell membrane and thus transporting it through the concentration gradient, without using ATP (energy).
113
What is turgor
Pressure exerted by fluid in a cell that presses the cell membrane against the cell wall.
Turgor makes plant tissue rigid.
Loss of turgor (from the loss of water) causes wilting
114
How does xylem and phloem move through the plant, actively or passively
Xylem: passive; no energy required. Transpiration from leaves, combined with cohesion and tension of water in the vessel elements and tracheids (sometimes but rarely active)
Phloem: active; energy required. Sucrose from source cells into phloem sieve tube elements
115
Diffusion versus Osmosis
-active or passive transport?
-concentration movement direction?
-what moves?
Diffusion: Active or passive transport
High SOLUTE concentration to low SOLUTE concentration
Movement of solute and solvent
Osmosis: passive transport
High SOLVENT concentration to low SOLVENT concentration
Movement of solvent only
Solvent = dissolver
Solute = what's being dissolved
116
