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Fall 2022 > Biology Cycle 7 > Flashcards

Biology Cycle 7 Flashcards

1
Q

What is sexual selection?

A

–> type of natural selection
–> usually male competition for access to females and by female’s choice of mate

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2
Q

What is intersexual selection?

A

selection based on interactions between males and females
–> ornate structures/behaviour/display/calls
that are associated with attractiveness or health/fitness

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3
Q

What is intrasexual selection?

A

selection based on interactions of the same sex
–> competing intimidate, injure, or kill rival males
–> males monopolize access to females
–> control of females/resources important to females (food/territory)

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4
Q

What does intersexual selection give rise to? Why?

A

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM – differences in size/appearance of males or females
–> selection drives males to evolve differently from female to gain ornamentation

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5
Q

How does sexual selection cause changes in populations?

A

Alike to DIRECTIONAL selection; pushes phenotypes to one (very) extreme which might not be necessary for any purpose other than intersexual selection

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6
Q

How does sexual asymmetry impact mating?

A

eggs are more energectically expensive than sperm

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7
Q

What are the limits of fitness for fitness in males and females

What do the limits indicate for mating?

A

Females – production of eggs
Males – number of females an individual can mate with
–> females must be more selective with mates

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8
Q

What do the features of males that females select from imply?

A
  • ability to obtain resources/food/territory
  • produce healthy offspring
  • protection of offspring
  • attractive individuals: good alleles ensure attractive offspring (offspring have high fitness/ chance of survival)
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9
Q

What is reproduction?

A

means of passing on an individuals’s genes to a new generation

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10
Q

What is the difference between asexual and sexual reproduction?

A

asexual: SINGLE individual creates offspring (no genetic input from another individual)
–> genetically identical offspring

sexual: union of egg/female and sperm/male to create a fertilized egg - zygote -
–> increases genetic diversity

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11
Q

What is reproductive strategy? Which type of reproduction is the best strategy?

A

a set of behaviours that lead to reproductives success
–> either are advantageous depending on the environment

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12
Q

What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?

A
  • in uniform, stable, unchanging environments or sessile (immobile) animals
  • no need to produce gametes
  • no need to find a mate
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13
Q

How does asexual reproduction occur in animals?

A

FISSION, BUDDING, PARTHENOGENESIS

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14
Q

Why are offspring from parthenogenesis not identical?

A

Egg of offspring is produced from meiosis in the female parent if the egg goes from haploid to diploid

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15
Q

What are the disadvantages of sexual reproduction?

A
  • cost of energy/raw materials/time-consuming for producing a gamete and find a mate
  • possibility for infection/disease
  • conflict for food and shelter
  • predation exposure
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16
Q

Can organisms reproduce sexually and asexually?

A

Yes; depending on environment

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17
Q

What sexual dimorphism? What is sexual monomorphism?

A

dimorphism: sexes look different
monomorphism: sexes look the same

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18
Q

What is the difference between natural and sexual selection?

A

natural - traits that increase survival and fitness are favoured and are passed onto offspring –> these traits increase in future generations

sexual - traits that increase mating success and individual fitness are favoured

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19
Q

How does directional selection in natural and sexual selection compare?

A

NATURAL: shift of alleles towards favourable alleles from non favourable alleles

SEXUAL: shift from female phenotypes to male phenotype resulting in dimorphism

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20
Q

How might sexual selection reduce survival?

A

favourable traits might be exaggerated making survival difficult (ex. birds with very long tails have difficulty flying)

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21
Q

Which sex selects their mate?

A

sex that invests more in parental care (usually females) to ensure quality of offspring since they have fewer contributions to the next generation

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22
Q

Which traits are favourable in intersexual selection? Which traits are favourable in intrasexual selection?

A

inter - traits that are more attractive (ornamental)

intra - traits that are stronger

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23
Q

How does intrasexual selection relate to intersexual selection?

A

–> males compete through performances of calls/dances/behaviours/structures

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24
Q

What are examples of sperm competition?

A

INTRASEXUAL
1. swimming speed - fastest sperm fertilizes egg
2. scrapers - scrape out sperm deposited by other males
3. mating plugs - after mating, males leave a plug to prevent other males from mating

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25
Q

How can phenotypes be used to reduce competition?

A

mate quickly before dominant male noticing by impersonating females to access guarded females (ex. cuttlefish male colouring)

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25
Q

How can phenotypes be used to reduce competition?

A

mate quickly before dominant male noticing by impersonating females to access guarded females (ex. cuttlefish male colouring)

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26
Q

How does reproductive success of males and females compare?

A

average fitness is the same for each sex

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27
Q

How does reproductive success compare between females?

A

generally equal reproductive success

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28
Q

How does reproductive success compare between males?

A

higher POTENTIAL fitness for any one individual, lowest quality has the lowest reproductive success - individual fitness can vary widely

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29
Q

How does parental care impact sexual dimorphism?

A

when one sex provides more parental care, they are unavailable for mating with others
–> other sex must compete more
–> under stronger sexual selection
–> drives evolution towards favourable traits

**in males and females

30
Q

What is the result of biparental care?

A

males removed from seeking additional mating opportunities so there is less dimorphism
–> both sexes compete and both sexes choose
–> sexual selection acts on both sexes

31
Q

What is sex?

A

exchange of genetic material

32
Q

What is the relationship between sex and reproduction?

A

it can either be in the same process or in different processes

33
Q

What occurs when sex is the same process as reproduction?

A

sexual reproduction
-> gametes fuse to generate new combinations of alleles in the offspring

34
Q

Which species undergo sexual reproduction?

A

animals, plants and other eukaryotes

35
Q

Why do offspring have a new combination of alleles unlike the parent alleles in sexual reproduction?

A

sex (genetic exchange) and recombination

36
Q

What occurs when sex is separate from reproduction?

A

sex is only genetic exchange from another organism (which can be distantly related) or their environment and reproduction is ASEXUAL

37
Q

Which species undergo asexual reproduction?

A

bacteria, archaea (prokaryotes)

38
Q

How does sex occur in bacteria and archaea?

A

CONJUGATION - transfer of plasmid
TRANSFORMATION - DNA from environment (ex. dead cells)
TRANSDUCTION - DNA moved around by viruses, transposons, mobile elements

39
Q

What are the ways in which organisms reproduce?

A

obligately asexual, facultatively sexual, obligately sexual

40
Q

How do obligately asexual organisms reproduce?

A

ONLY asexual reproduction (cell division) and sex is just genetic exchange

41
Q

How do facultatively sexual organisms reproduce?

A

sexually or asexually

42
Q

What are examples of unicellular and multicellular organisms that are facultatively sexual?

A

EUKARYOTES
uni. - protists
multi. - plants

43
Q

How do obligately sexual organisms reproduce?

A

ONLY sexual reproduction

44
Q

How do the resulting offspring of asexually reproducing organisms compare with the parent?

A

genetically identical - CLONES unless sex, recombination or mutation occurs prior to division

45
Q

How does asexual reproduction compare between prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes?

A

bacteria & archaea by binary fission
unicellular eukaryotes (ex. protists, yeasts) by mitosis

46
Q

How does asexual reproduction occur in plants?

A

new individuals grow from a tuber (potato) or from a runner (strawberry) that are genetically identical

47
Q

What is budding?

A

new individual grows and develops while attached to parent

48
Q

What is fragmentation?

A

pieces separate from a parents body and regenerate into new individuals

49
Q

What is parthenogenesis?

A

females produce offspring without sperm fertilizing their egg so their is no sex

50
Q

What is the ploidy of offspring produced by parthenogenesis?

A

unfertilized egg remains diploid during gamete formation so there is no meiosis
–> offspring are clones
or
DNA in haploid egg replicates and becomes diploid
–> offspring are not clones

51
Q

What is the difference between sexual reproduction in animals and plants vs fungi and protists?

A

ANIMALS & PLANTS:
- fusion of different gametes produced by different sexes

FUNGI & PROTISTS:
- two or more mating types
- cells fuse or nuclei exchanges and nuclei fuse

52
Q

What are dioecious species?

A

individuals of separate sexes (most animals, some plants)

53
Q

What are monoecious species?

A

individual plants are both sexes and have both reproductive structures (most plants are monoecious)

54
Q

What are hermaphrodites?

A

individual animals are both sexes and have both reproductive structures (some animals)

55
Q

How do monoecious plants display reproductive tissue of both sexes?

A

ex. male and female in the same flower
or
ex. separate male and female cones on the same tree

56
Q

What are the two types of hermaphrodites?

A

simultaneous or sequential

57
Q

What are simultaneous hermaphrodites characterized by?

A

male and female reproductive structures at the same time in animals (ex. worm individuals have ovaries and testes)

58
Q

What are sequential hermaphrodites characterized by? What are the two types?

A

starts as one sex and develops into another (protandry - male first & protogyny - female first)

59
Q

What species is commonly sequential hermaphrodites? Why does this occur?

A

fish –> if a dominant female dies or size advantage for reproductive/mating success

60
Q

When does protandry occur?

A

if a dominant female dies or if males have more reproductive success when smaller in size and the reproductive success increases when they become females

61
Q

When does protogyny occur?

A

when females have more reproductive success when smaller and develop into males increase reproductive success

62
Q

How did sex/reproduction occur 4 billion years ago?

A

–> life evolved - LUCA reproduced asexually but also likely had sex (exchange genes)

63
Q

How did sex/reproduction occur 2 billion years ago?

A

–> eukaryotes evolved - most eukaryotes can reproduce sexually since meiosis evolved for the fusion of gametes

64
Q

How does sex/reproduction occur today (compared to 2-4 billion years ago)?

A

asexual - bacteria, archaea, and some eukaryotes have separate sex

sexual - most eukaryotes can produce along with sex and most ANIMALS MUST reproduce sexually

65
Q

What is the result of the rarity of asexual animal reproduction?

A

they are prone in extinction

66
Q

How is genetic information lost in sexual reproduction?

A

only half of an individual genetic information is passed on to offspring so for ever generation, sexual individuals pass on 2x less of their genetic material = two-fold cost of sex

67
Q

Why is sexual reproduction inefficient compared to asexual reproduction?

A

only females “grow”/contribute new offspring so producing a male reduces reproductive output, so asexual population grow much faster

68
Q

What are the evolutionary benefits of sex in terms of variation?

A

greater population variation leads to potentially greater adaptability since there is an increased probability of have some offspring surviving/having favourable phenotypes

69
Q

What are the evolutionary benefits of sex in terms of allele combination?

A

sex (genetic exchange)/recombination can bring beneficial alleles together to create the highest fitness (more fit than parents) more quickly
–>more efficiently remove bad allele combinations through selection

70
Q

What is clonal interference?

A

asexual reproduction preventing combinations of “good” mutation

71
Q

What are the evolutionary deficits of asexual reproduction?

A

beneficial variants cannot be combined unless there is sex multiple times which is slower to highest fitness than sexual reproduction

72
Q

Why is sex important in macroevolution?

A
  1. variation in phenotypes that are not identical to parents
  2. occurs more frequently in related individuals (same species) so there is a shared gene pool
  3. no sex = speciation (creation of new species)

Fall 2022 (12 decks)

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