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Biology CT 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the function of the kidney in the urinary system?

A

Filter blood continuously, removing waste & excess fluids while maintaining vital balance of water, salts, & minerals in the body.

The kidney plays a crucial role in homeostasis by regulating the composition of blood and producing urine.

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2
Q

What is the function of the ureter?

A

Transports urine from kidneys to bladder.

The ureters are muscular tubes that facilitate the movement of urine through peristalsis.

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3
Q

What is the function of the bladder?

A

Holds urine (up to 300ml to 500ml) for 2 to 5 hours.

The bladder is a hollow organ that expands as it fills with urine and contracts to expel urine.

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4
Q

What is the function of the urethra in females?

A

Forms a passage for urine.

In females, the urethra is shorter and solely serves the purpose of transporting urine.

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5
Q

What is the function of the urethra in males?

A

Forms a passage for urine and semen.

In males, the urethra serves dual purposes for urinary and reproductive systems.

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6
Q

What are the structures that make up the vascular system of the Nephron?

A

The vascular system of the Nephron includes the afferent arteriole, efferent arterioles, glomerulus and peritubular capillaries network.

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7
Q

What are the structures that make up the tubular system of the Nephron?

A

The tubular system of the Nephron includes Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct.

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8
Q

What are the three phases of urine formation?

A

Urine formation occurs in three phases: filtration in the glomerulus, selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule, and fine-tuning of water and solute balance in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.

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9
Q

How do kidneys control urine formation?

A

Kidneys control urine formation through a complex feedback system involving hormones (like adrenaline, anti diuretic, aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide) and neural signals that regulate water absorption and solute balance based on blood pressure, volume, and composition.

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10
Q

What is the first part of the urinary system?

A

Minor calyx(structure), kidney(organ)

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11
Q

What is the second part of the urinary system?

A

Major calyx

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12
Q

What is the third part of the urinary system?

A

Renal pelvis

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13
Q

What is the fourth part of the urinary system?

A

Ureters

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14
Q

What is the fifth part of the urinary system?

A

Urinary bladder

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15
Q

What is the sixth part of the urinary system?

A

Urethra

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16
Q

What structure connects distally to the renal papillae?

A

Renal pelvis

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17
Q

What structure connects distally to the ureter?

A

Urinary bladder

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18
Q

What is the first tube in the nephron?

A

Proximal convoluted tubule

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19
Q

What is the second tube in the nephron?

A

Loop of Henle

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20
Q

What is the third tube in the nephron?

A

Distal convoluted tubule

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21
Q

What is the fourth tube in the nephron?

A

Collecting tubule

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22
Q

What two structures are connected by Bowman’s capsule?

A

Glomerulus and proximal convoluting tubule

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23
Q

What two structures are connected by the proximal convoluted tubule?

A

Bowmen’s capsule and loop of henle

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24
Q

What two structures are connected by the Loop of Henle?

A

Distal convoluted tubule and proximal convoluted tubule

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25
What two structures are connected by the distal convoluted tubule?
Loop of henle and collecting duct
26
What activity occurs between the glomerulus and bowmen’s capsule?
Simple Filtration of blood
27
What activity occurs between the proximal convoluted tubule and peritubular capillary network?
Selective reabsorption and secretion
28
What activity occurs between the Loop of Henle and peritubular capillary network?
Facilitates the concentration of urine and selective reabsorption and secretion
29
What activity occurs between the distal convoluted tubule and peritubular capillary network?
Selective reabsorption and Secretion
30
What activity occurs between the collecting tubule and peritubular capillary network?
Secretion
31
What is urine made up of?
Urine is made up of water, mineral salts, urea, uric acid, ammonia, and creatinine.
32
What is the functional and structural unit of the kidney?
The functional unit and structural unit of the kidney is the nephron.
33
Where are the kidneys located?
The kidneys are located at the posterior abdominal wall, behind the peritoneum, and below the diaphragm.
34
How are the kidneys positioned related to skeletal system
The kidneys are just below the rib cage, on either side of the vertebral column.
35
What might a person with a kidney disorder complain of?
A person with a kidney disorder may complain of loin pain because the location of the kidneys can also be described as at the loin area.
36
What happens when a person is dehydrated after profuse perspiration?
The thirst center located in the hypothalamus will be stimulated to signal the person to drink water to replenish the water balance.
37
What becomes a challenge in renal failure?
Kidneys are unable to work efficiently hence, waste accumulates in the body
38
What is homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the state of equilibrium in the internal environment of the human body.
39
What are the 3 phases of urine formation?
The 3 phases of urine formation are simple filtration, selective reabsorption, and secretion.
40
What are the 4 hormonal controls of urine formation?
The 4 hormonal controls of urine formation are: 1. Antidiuretic hormone - Controls water reabsorption. 2. Aldosterone - Increase reabsorption of sodium and water 3. Adrenaline - Controls blood pressure. 4. Atrial natriuretic peptide - Decrease reabsorption of sodium and water
41
What is negative feedback?
A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point to maintain body parameters within their normal range. ## Footnote Example: Body temperature regulation, where sweating occurs when temperature rises above the set point and shivering occurs when it drops below this set point.
42
What is positive feedback?
A mechanism that intensifies a response until an end point is reached. ## Footnote Example: Blood clotting, where a cascade of enzymatic proteins activates each other, leading to the formation of a clot.
43
How are fluids distributed in the human body?
Fluids are distributed between intracellular and extracellular compartments. Extracellular fluid is further divided Into intravascular fluid, trans cellular fluid and interstitial fluid.
44
What are electrolytes?
Minerals with electric charges when dissolved in body fluids, present in blood, urine, and other body fluids.
45
What is the importance of water balance in the body?
To prevent dehydration
46
What are the physiological processes that maintain fluid and electrolyte balance?
a) The distribution of fluid and electrolytes within body b) Movement of fluid and electrolytes c) Balancing fluid intake and output d) Mechanisms which regulates fluid and electrolytes balance e) Maintenance of body’s acid-base balance
47
What are the 7 structures of the digestive tract?
1. Mouth 2. Oropharynx 3. Oesophagus 4. Stomach 5. Small intestine 6. Large intestine 7. Anus
48
What is mechanical digestion in the mouth?
It's a breakdown of food by chewing leading to mastication.
49
What structures are involved in mastication?
1. Tongue 2. Teeth 3. Oral cavity 4. Salivary glands
50
What is chemical digestion in the mouth?
When saliva is mixed with food to form a moist ball (food bolus), salivary enzyme digests starch in food.
51
Where are the 3 pairs of salivary glands located?
1. Parotid glands: in front and below the ears, extending from the zygomatic arch to the angle of the mandible. 2. Sublingual glands: under the tongue, in the floor of the mouth. 3. Submandibular glands: below the mandible, extending from the angle of the mandible to the digastric.
52
What happens to the food bolus after swallowing?
The food bolus is swallowed into the oesophagus and peristalsis pushes the food bolus down into the stomach.
53
What is chyme?
Is a pulpy mass of gastric juice and partially digested food
54
What are the functions of the stomach?
1. Storage of food and releasing it at a rate optimal for digestion 2. Absorption of lipid-soluble substances such as alcohol and drugs. 3. Produce gastric secretions from chief-type cells, goblet cells, parietal cells 4. Digestion of food (mechanical: churning movement of stomach, chemical: gastric enzymes digest proteins)
55
Where does the digestion of fat begin?
The digestion of fat begins at the duodenum where bile will emulsify the fat for further breakdown by pancreatic juice into fatty acids. ## Footnote A person who has undergone surgical removal of the gall bladder will suffer bloatedness and indigestion after a high-fat meal.
56
Outline 3 functions of the liver.
1. Storage of glycogen, iron, and vitamins A, D, E & K 2. Secretion of bile to emulsify fats and neutralize chyme in the duodenum. 3. Destruction of worn-out erythrocytes, to destroy hormones no longer useful to the body, and detoxification of substances such as drugs.
57
What are the functions of the small intestines?
1. Digestion: Breaks down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats into simpler molecules using enzymes from the pancreas. 2. Absorption: Transfers broken-down nutrients through the intestinal walls into the bloodstream and lymphatic system. 3. Mixing movement: Uses segmentation to thoroughly mix food with digestive juices to ensure complete nutrient extraction.
58
Identify the 3 structures of the small intestines.
1. Duodenum 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum
59
What are the 7 structures of the large intestines?
Caecum, Transverse colon, Anal canal, Ascending colon, Descending colon, Sigmoid colon, Rectum
60
What are the 3 functions of the large intestines?
1. Absorption of large amounts of water and mineral salts 2. Gas formation by bacteria living in the large intestine 3. Secretion of mucus to lubricate faeces
61
What hormones and secretions are produced by the pancreas?
1. Insulin: Lowers blood glucose level 2. Glucagon: Increases blood glucose level 3. Pancreatic juice: Digests carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
62
What are the 2 functions of the gallbladder?
1. Store concentrated bile produced by the liver 2. Release bile when required after a meal with high fat content
63
What are the 2 functions of the salivary glands?
1. Produce saliva to mix with food to form a moist ball called 'food bolus' 2. Salivary enzyme digests starch in food
64
What are the accessory organs of the digestive tract?
Liver, Gall bladder, Pancreas, Salivary glands
65
What are the classifications of oral hypoglycaemic agents?
1. Sulphonylurea 2. Biguanide 3. Alpha glucosidase inhibitor
66
What are the two types of pharmacotherapies for diabetes mellitus?
1. Oral hypoglycaemic agents 2. Insulin therapy
67
List three names of hypoglycaemic drugs.
1. Tolbutomide, glipizide (sulphonylurea) 2. Metformin, metformin XR (Biguanide) 3. Acarbose (Alpha glucosidase inhibitor)
68
What are two side effects of insulin pharmacotherapy that patients must take precautions against?
1. Hypoglycaemia 2. Redness & swelling at the injection site 3. Allergic reaction worsened by itch 4. Lipohypertrophy
69
List the categories of insulin pharmacotherapy.
1. Rapid-acting insulin 2. Short-acting insulin 3. Intermediate-acting insulin 4. Long-acting insulin 5. Biphasic pre-mixed insulin
70
What are the non-pharmacotherapy options for type 1 diabetes mellitus?
Diet and exercise.
71
How is hypothyroidism treated?
With levothyroxine.
72
How is hyperthyroidism treated?
With Carbimazole.
73
What are the antithyroid agents?
Carbimazole or propylthiouracil.
74
What is Prednisolone classified as?
A corticosteroid.
75
What are the side effects of steroid therapy?
Immunosuppressive, hyperglycemia, gastric irritation, or osteoporosis.
76
What is the principle of insulin therapy?
The correct amount of insulin must be available to the cells when glucose is available in the blood.
77
How can rheumatoid arthritis joint pain be managed?
Rheumatoid arthritis joint pain can be managed with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
78
How should sustained-release medication for diabetes mellitus be taken?
Sustained-release medication for diabetes mellitus should be swallowed whole and cannot be chewed or crushed & must be taken at the same time everyday.
79
What is the action of sulfonylureas?
Sulfonylureas stimulate insulin secretion by the pancreas.
80
What do biguanides do?
Biguanides inhibit hepatic gluconeogenesis and tissue sensitivity to insulin.
81
What should patients on anticoagulant drugs be monitored for?
Patients on anticoagulant drugs should be monitored for prolonged bleeding.
82
How should systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) be managed?
SLE should be managed with prednisolone, a type of steroid.
83
What are common side effects of prednisolone?
Common side effects of prednisolone include gastrointestinal upset, immunosuppression, hyperglycemia, and osteoporosis.

Nursing (12 decks)

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