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Stage 1 Pharmacy > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

Types of vaccines?

A

Live attenuated - (created in artificial conditions so it’s not pathogenic only reproduces)

Inactivated/killed - (pathogen killed)

Toxoid (inactivated toxin) - (toxin of pathogen)

Subunit/conjugate - (part of the pathogen)

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2
Q

What is infection control?

A

The process and activities that identify and reduce the risks of acquiring and transmitting endemic or epidemic infections among individuals

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3
Q

Liver function tests

A

Good indicators of hepatic dysfunction.
Alkaline phosphatase - inc in biliary tract damage + inflammation, liver disease (hep), bone disease, pregnancy
Alanine aminotransferase - inc when liver cells inflamed or undergo cell death, acute liver damage, hepatocellular damage!
Aspartate aminoteansferase - inc in acute liver damage, hepatocellular damage!
Gamma-Glutamyl transferase - cholestatic damage, alcohol toxicity
Bilirubin - urine urobilinogen, plasma total and direct
Albumin
Total protein
Clotting screen

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4
Q

Liver tests explain the components that are elevated.

A

Acute or chronic?

Elevated bilirubin? High levels means block in biliary system.

AP elevated?

AST elevated?

GGT elevated?

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5
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Rough - ribosomes attached to cytoplasm side. mRNA translated intonproteins at ribosome.

Smooth - post translational modification takes place.

Major reservoir for calcium ions

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6
Q

Hypertonic

A

Cells swell due to osmotic water loss when exposed to hypertonic external solutions

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7
Q

Hypotonic

A

Cells shrink due to osmotic water influx when exposed to hypotonic external solutions

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8
Q

Na - K pump

A

Transports 3Na+ out of the cell because the inside is slightly more positive than outside so its attracted to it in exchange for 2K+
ATP used. Active transport
Inhibition of pump will lead to swelling

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9
Q

K+ Na+ Ca2+ cytoplasm and ECF?

A

K+ 140 mM vs 5mM
Na+ 15 mM vs 145mM
Ca2+ 0.1 mM vs 1mM

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10
Q

The cell cycle

A

Interphase - G1 (before duplication or synthesis) S (DNA synthesised) G2 (synthesis is complete)

Mitosis - Prophase (centrioles move to poles) Metaphase (Chromosomes align, nuclei disappears) Anaphase (chromosomes divide and move to poles) Telophase (nuclear membrane reappears)
Cytokinesis - cytoplasm division

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11
Q

Sub-lethal vs lethal cellular injury

A

Hydropic degeneration
Fatty change

Necrosis
Programmed cell death

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12
Q

Ligand-gated ion channels with ACh receptor in muscle contraction

A

Nicotinic ACh receptor. Binding of ACh opens channel to allow Na+ entry.

Action potenetial at neuromuscular junction - ACh released - binds to receptors - opens channel for Na+ - action potential travels along T-tubules - muscle shortens producing tension

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13
Q

G protein coupled receptors

A

unstimulated cell - adrenaline binds to b-adrenoreceptor which allows for the b-adrenoreceptor to exchange GDP with GTP - low affinity means that a subunit with GTP will be released - this activates the amplifier enzyme (adenylate cyclase) - unbinding of adrenaline / GTP hydrolysis

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14
Q

innate immunity vs adaptive immunity

A

Rapid onset, fixed, limited specificity, constant during response, Granulocytes monocyte

slow response, variable, highly specific, improve during response, B + T cells

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15
Q

Haemostasis - the coagulation cascade

A

cut of exposed collagen binds and activates platelets - vasoconstriction - temporary clot by platelet plug - coagulation blood clot formation

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16
Q

Blood types

A

O - no A/B antigens on RBC - anti A + B antibodies in plasma
A - A antigen - Anti B
B - B antigen - Anti A
AB - A + B antigen - No A/B

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17
Q

What happens when A antigens mix with A antibodies

A

Antibodies cause the blood cells to clump/agglutinate because A blood has B antigens

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18
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

A system which allows an organism to sense info about its environment and respond rapidly and accordingly

19
Q

How the CNS works

A

Sensory receptors in PNS generate an impulse - PNS passes impulse to CNS - CNS interprets impulse - CNS passes impulse to PNS - PNS stimulates a response

20
Q

Action potential

A

Depolarises the axon terminal which opens the Ca2+ voltage-gate and allows Ca2+ to enter.

21
Q

Sympathetic vs parasympathetic

A

fight or flight - pupils dilate, HR inc etc

Rest and digest - pupils constrict, HT dec etc

22
Q

Respiratory system

A

Oxygen environment - nasal cavities - pharynx - trachea - bronchi - bronchioles - alveoli - oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange - bronchioles - bronchi - trachea - pharynx - nasal cavities - carbon dioxide environment

23
Q

what is the liver made up of?

A

hepatic triad - branch of hepatic artery, branch of hepatic portal vein, biliary ductile
hepatic plate
central vein
liver sinusoids

24
Q

functions of the liver

A

bile production, protein synthesis, hormone production, storage

25
Q

carbohydrate metabolism

A

liver receives glucose from the blood plasma - stored as glycogen (glucose-6-phoasphate) (glycogenesis) - when body needs it glycogen transformed to glycogen - if glycogen exhausted then lactate stranported to liver and converted to glucose (cori cycle) or amino groups transferred to liver and converted (alanine cycle)

26
Q

bilirubin metabolism

A

•Uptake of Bilirubin by hepatocytes: •Bilirubin dissociates from albumin & enters hepatocytes •Bilirubin conjugated with two glucuronic acids by UDP-glucuronyl transferase (bilirubin diglucuronide) •Conjugated bilirubin transported into bile canaliculi and bile. •Process energy dependent and impaired in liver diseases •Intestinal bacteria degrade bilirubin to urobilinogen

27
Q

what is preload and afterload?

A

tension applied before the muscle performs any work, inc preload = inc cardiac output

load that preloaded muscle has to work against, inc afterload = dec CO

28
Q

Functions of the kidneys

A

Homeostatic regulation of water and ion content of blood - excretion of metabolic waste products - production of hormones

29
Q

The 4 processes of a nephron

A

Filtration - movement of fluid from blood into the lumen of the nephron
Excretion - anything filtered from the renal corpuscle is destined for excretion unless absorbed
Reabsorption - movement of the filtrate from the lumen of the tubule back into the blood
Secretion - removes selected molecules from the blood and adds them to the filtrate in the tubule lumen

30
Q

Amount of excretion equation

A

amount filtered - amount absorbed + amount secreted

31
Q

Clearance equation

A

Urine conc x urine flow rate / plasma conc

32
Q

Definition of medicinal product

A

Any substance or combination of substances which may be used in, or administered to, human beings, either with a view to restoring, correcting or modifying physiological functions by exerting a pharmacological, immunological or metabolic action, or to make a medical diagnosis

33
Q

Role of MHRA

A

responsible for ensuring the medicines and medical devices work properly and are acceptably safe

34
Q

Competitive inhibition

A

competes with S for active site, effect reversed by inc [S]

slope from point diagonally clockwise

35
Q

Non-competitive inhibitor (reversible)

A

Distorts the shape of E and active site to prevent the binding of S

the inhibitor affinity should be unchanged regardless of whether substrate is bound or not. The affinity for the inhibitor usually changes when substrate is bound in reality

36
Q

Uncompetitive inhibitor

A

Inhibitor binds only to E-S complex, reduction in effectiveness [E-S complex] inc E apparent affinity for S, Km lowered dec Vmax

Inhibitor binding should only occur if the active site is occupied by substrate. But in most cases, the inhibitor will have some affinity for the unoccupied enzyme as well

37
Q

3Rs strategy

A

Reduce the number of animals used to a min

Refine the way experiments are carried out to make sure animals suffer as little as possible

Replace animal experiments with non animal techniques wherever possible

38
Q

ICH guidelines

A

Quality
Safety
Efficacy
Multidisciplinary

39
Q

Clinical trails

A

Phase 1 - focus on safety, tolerability and bioavailability rather than efficacy. Administered to small number of healthy volunteers
Phase 2 - Focus on determining the efficacy of the drug in larger number of patients suffering condition
Phase 3 - larger version of prev trails to answer specific efficacy questions. Compare new drug with drugs currently in use to treat condition and provide risk analysis
Phase 4 - Post-marketing studies performed after medicine approved and for several years. Assist in indicating other uses for the medicine and greater idea of long term pros and cons

40
Q

coronary circulation

A

Right coronary artery

Left coronary artery

Circumflex artery

Left anterior descending artery

41
Q

Tautomerism

A

A form of constitutional isomerism

leads to ketone formation

42
Q

How are nucleotides joined together

A

Phosphodiester bonds which link together the sugar units of the growing polynucleotide chains

43
Q

menstrual cycle

A

1) lining of the uterus breaks down
2) uterus lining builds up again ready for fertilised egg
3) egg develops and released
4) wall maintained for 14 days until day 28 for fertilised egg
5) no fertilised egg = wall breaking

Follicle stimulating hormone produced in the pituitary gland, causes egg to mature in follicle + stimulates ovaries to produce oestrogen

oestrogen causes lining of the uterus to grow, stimulates the release of luteinising hormone + inhibits the release of FHS

LH produced by pituitary gland stimulates the release of an egg

progesterone produced in ovaries by remains of follicle after ovulation, maintains lining of the uterus when the level of progesterone falls. Progesterone inhibits release of FSH and LH

Stage 1 Pharmacy (6 decks)

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