Biology Flashcards
Types of vaccines?
Live attenuated - (created in artificial conditions so it’s not pathogenic only reproduces)
Inactivated/killed - (pathogen killed)
Toxoid (inactivated toxin) - (toxin of pathogen)
Subunit/conjugate - (part of the pathogen)
What is infection control?
The process and activities that identify and reduce the risks of acquiring and transmitting endemic or epidemic infections among individuals
Liver function tests
Good indicators of hepatic dysfunction.
Alkaline phosphatase - inc in biliary tract damage + inflammation, liver disease (hep), bone disease, pregnancy
Alanine aminotransferase - inc when liver cells inflamed or undergo cell death, acute liver damage, hepatocellular damage!
Aspartate aminoteansferase - inc in acute liver damage, hepatocellular damage!
Gamma-Glutamyl transferase - cholestatic damage, alcohol toxicity
Bilirubin - urine urobilinogen, plasma total and direct
Albumin
Total protein
Clotting screen
Liver tests explain the components that are elevated.
Acute or chronic?
Elevated bilirubin? High levels means block in biliary system.
AP elevated?
AST elevated?
GGT elevated?
Endoplasmic reticulum
Rough - ribosomes attached to cytoplasm side. mRNA translated intonproteins at ribosome.
Smooth - post translational modification takes place.
Major reservoir for calcium ions
Hypertonic
Cells swell due to osmotic water loss when exposed to hypertonic external solutions
Hypotonic
Cells shrink due to osmotic water influx when exposed to hypotonic external solutions
Na - K pump
Transports 3Na+ out of the cell because the inside is slightly more positive than outside so its attracted to it in exchange for 2K+
ATP used. Active transport
Inhibition of pump will lead to swelling
K+ Na+ Ca2+ cytoplasm and ECF?
K+ 140 mM vs 5mM
Na+ 15 mM vs 145mM
Ca2+ 0.1 mM vs 1mM
The cell cycle
Interphase - G1 (before duplication or synthesis) S (DNA synthesised) G2 (synthesis is complete)
Mitosis - Prophase (centrioles move to poles) Metaphase (Chromosomes align, nuclei disappears) Anaphase (chromosomes divide and move to poles) Telophase (nuclear membrane reappears)
Cytokinesis - cytoplasm division
Sub-lethal vs lethal cellular injury
Hydropic degeneration
Fatty change
Necrosis
Programmed cell death
Ligand-gated ion channels with ACh receptor in muscle contraction
Nicotinic ACh receptor. Binding of ACh opens channel to allow Na+ entry.
Action potenetial at neuromuscular junction - ACh released - binds to receptors - opens channel for Na+ - action potential travels along T-tubules - muscle shortens producing tension
G protein coupled receptors
unstimulated cell - adrenaline binds to b-adrenoreceptor which allows for the b-adrenoreceptor to exchange GDP with GTP - low affinity means that a subunit with GTP will be released - this activates the amplifier enzyme (adenylate cyclase) - unbinding of adrenaline / GTP hydrolysis
innate immunity vs adaptive immunity
Rapid onset, fixed, limited specificity, constant during response, Granulocytes monocyte
slow response, variable, highly specific, improve during response, B + T cells
Haemostasis - the coagulation cascade
cut of exposed collagen binds and activates platelets - vasoconstriction - temporary clot by platelet plug - coagulation blood clot formation
Blood types
O - no A/B antigens on RBC - anti A + B antibodies in plasma
A - A antigen - Anti B
B - B antigen - Anti A
AB - A + B antigen - No A/B
What happens when A antigens mix with A antibodies
Antibodies cause the blood cells to clump/agglutinate because A blood has B antigens
What is the nervous system?
A system which allows an organism to sense info about its environment and respond rapidly and accordingly
How the CNS works
Sensory receptors in PNS generate an impulse - PNS passes impulse to CNS - CNS interprets impulse - CNS passes impulse to PNS - PNS stimulates a response
Action potential
Depolarises the axon terminal which opens the Ca2+ voltage-gate and allows Ca2+ to enter.
Sympathetic vs parasympathetic
fight or flight - pupils dilate, HR inc etc
Rest and digest - pupils constrict, HT dec etc
Respiratory system
Oxygen environment - nasal cavities - pharynx - trachea - bronchi - bronchioles - alveoli - oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange - bronchioles - bronchi - trachea - pharynx - nasal cavities - carbon dioxide environment
what is the liver made up of?
hepatic triad - branch of hepatic artery, branch of hepatic portal vein, biliary ductile
hepatic plate
central vein
liver sinusoids
functions of the liver
bile production, protein synthesis, hormone production, storage
carbohydrate metabolism
liver receives glucose from the blood plasma - stored as glycogen (glucose-6-phoasphate) (glycogenesis) - when body needs it glycogen transformed to glycogen - if glycogen exhausted then lactate stranported to liver and converted to glucose (cori cycle) or amino groups transferred to liver and converted (alanine cycle)
bilirubin metabolism
•Uptake of Bilirubin by hepatocytes: •Bilirubin dissociates from albumin & enters hepatocytes •Bilirubin conjugated with two glucuronic acids by UDP-glucuronyl transferase (bilirubin diglucuronide) •Conjugated bilirubin transported into bile canaliculi and bile. •Process energy dependent and impaired in liver diseases •Intestinal bacteria degrade bilirubin to urobilinogen
what is preload and afterload?
tension applied before the muscle performs any work, inc preload = inc cardiac output
load that preloaded muscle has to work against, inc afterload = dec CO
Functions of the kidneys
Homeostatic regulation of water and ion content of blood - excretion of metabolic waste products - production of hormones
The 4 processes of a nephron
Filtration - movement of fluid from blood into the lumen of the nephron
Excretion - anything filtered from the renal corpuscle is destined for excretion unless absorbed
Reabsorption - movement of the filtrate from the lumen of the tubule back into the blood
Secretion - removes selected molecules from the blood and adds them to the filtrate in the tubule lumen
Amount of excretion equation
amount filtered - amount absorbed + amount secreted
Clearance equation
Urine conc x urine flow rate / plasma conc
Definition of medicinal product
Any substance or combination of substances which may be used in, or administered to, human beings, either with a view to restoring, correcting or modifying physiological functions by exerting a pharmacological, immunological or metabolic action, or to make a medical diagnosis
Role of MHRA
responsible for ensuring the medicines and medical devices work properly and are acceptably safe
Competitive inhibition
competes with S for active site, effect reversed by inc [S]
slope from point diagonally clockwise
Non-competitive inhibitor (reversible)
Distorts the shape of E and active site to prevent the binding of S
the inhibitor affinity should be unchanged regardless of whether substrate is bound or not. The affinity for the inhibitor usually changes when substrate is bound in reality
Uncompetitive inhibitor
Inhibitor binds only to E-S complex, reduction in effectiveness [E-S complex] inc E apparent affinity for S, Km lowered dec Vmax
Inhibitor binding should only occur if the active site is occupied by substrate. But in most cases, the inhibitor will have some affinity for the unoccupied enzyme as well
3Rs strategy
Reduce the number of animals used to a min
Refine the way experiments are carried out to make sure animals suffer as little as possible
Replace animal experiments with non animal techniques wherever possible
ICH guidelines
Quality
Safety
Efficacy
Multidisciplinary
Clinical trails
Phase 1 - focus on safety, tolerability and bioavailability rather than efficacy. Administered to small number of healthy volunteers
Phase 2 - Focus on determining the efficacy of the drug in larger number of patients suffering condition
Phase 3 - larger version of prev trails to answer specific efficacy questions. Compare new drug with drugs currently in use to treat condition and provide risk analysis
Phase 4 - Post-marketing studies performed after medicine approved and for several years. Assist in indicating other uses for the medicine and greater idea of long term pros and cons
coronary circulation
Right coronary artery
Left coronary artery
Circumflex artery
Left anterior descending artery
Tautomerism
A form of constitutional isomerism
leads to ketone formation
How are nucleotides joined together
Phosphodiester bonds which link together the sugar units of the growing polynucleotide chains
menstrual cycle
1) lining of the uterus breaks down
2) uterus lining builds up again ready for fertilised egg
3) egg develops and released
4) wall maintained for 14 days until day 28 for fertilised egg
5) no fertilised egg = wall breaking
Follicle stimulating hormone produced in the pituitary gland, causes egg to mature in follicle + stimulates ovaries to produce oestrogen
oestrogen causes lining of the uterus to grow, stimulates the release of luteinising hormone + inhibits the release of FHS
LH produced by pituitary gland stimulates the release of an egg
progesterone produced in ovaries by remains of follicle after ovulation, maintains lining of the uterus when the level of progesterone falls. Progesterone inhibits release of FSH and LH
