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Biology Flashcards

1
Q

What is biology?

A

The study of living things

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2
Q

What is spontaneous generation?

A

It was believed that living life originated from the non-living/dead via spontaneous generation

This idea was made popular by Aristotle

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3
Q

Who was Francesco Redi?

A

First to conduct a controlled experiment to test the concept of spontaneous generation

He suspected that the maggots that appeared on rotting meat did not actually arise from the meat itself

He hypothesized that maggot hatched from the objects dropped by the flies

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4
Q

What were some aspects of Redi’s Experiment?

A

Control Group

  • no cloth covering
  • flies go in and out

Experimental Group

  • cloth covering
  • flies were able to go in and out

Results

  • control: meat had maggots
  • experimental: no maggots

Conclusion
- maggots found in rotting meat were not due to spontaneous generation

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5
Q

What is Active Principle?

A

The discovery of microorganisms by the use of microscopes re-opened the discussion about the origin of life

Many people believed that the air has an ‘active principle’ that helps with the generation of these microorganisms

Louis Pasteur hypothesized that this ‘active principle’ in the air was an organism

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6
Q

Who was Pasteur?

A

Devised an experiment with a unique S neck flask

Broth was placed in the flask and then boiled to kill all the microorganisms

As each flask cooled, fresh air was drawn in and moisture condensed in the curve of the neck

Pasteur predicted that air entering the neck of the flask would contain microorganisms but that they would settle by gravity in the neck and never reach the broth

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7
Q

What is biogenesis?

A

The theory that living organisms could arise only from other living things

German physician Rudolf Virchow suggested the theory in 1858

Pasteur’s experiments provided supporting evidence for biogenesis

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8
Q

Who was Robert Hooke?

A

Observed cork from the bark of an oak tree under a microscope

It looked as it the cork was made up of hundred of tiny rooms

They reminded him of monks tiny rooms or cells in a monastery, he named the structures cells

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9
Q

Who was Antony Van Leeuwenhoek?

A

Became the first person to describe single-celled microorganisms

Referred to them as ‘animalcules’

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10
Q

Who were Matthias Schlediden and Theordor Schwann?

A

Worked together by comparing results and came to an important conclusion
Schleiden noted that all plants are composed of cells
Schwann concluded that animal tissues contained cells

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11
Q

Who was Rudolf Virchow?

A

Showed in experiments that bone cells could develop from cartilage cells

Made microscope observations of divining cells from multicellular organisms

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12
Q

What is cell theory?

A

All organisms are composed of one or more cells

The cells is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms

All cells come from pre-existing cells

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13
Q

What are simple compound light microscopes?

A

Use light to pass through a specimen and 2 or more lenses to create an image

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14
Q

What are the pros and cons of simple compound light microscopes?

A

Pros:

  • inexpensive
  • small in size
  • transportable

Cons:

  • low magnifying power
  • creates 2D images
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15
Q

What are electron microscopes?

A

Specimens are illuminated with a beam of electrons instead of a beam of light

Magnifies images up to 1.2 million times

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16
Q

What are the pros and cons of electron microscopes?

A

Pros:

  • enhanced image quality
  • greater magnifying power
  • high resolution

Cons:

  • costly
  • size
  • stationary
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17
Q

Staining Cells

A

Scientists stain cells so they can see various structures/organelles with the cell

This allows for greater clarity

Different chemicals attach to different structures to accentuate them when viewed under a microscope

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18
Q

What is a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)?

A

The SEM sweeps a beam of electrons over an object to create a three-dimensional image

SEM can reach a magnification of 300 000x

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19
Q

What is a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)?

A

Canadian scientists helped improve the design of the microscope

A beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen to produce a 2D image magnified 10 000x to 100 000x

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20
Q

What is a Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM)?

A

A laser beam is first directed at one plane, then another, and so on. This process creates a series of two dimensional images

The CLSM produces optical ‘slices’ of a three-dimensional object

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21
Q

What is a Scanning Tunnelling Microscope?

A

Allows scientists to see at the atomic level

Greater magnifying power than electron microscopes

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22
Q

How do you calculate Field of View?

A

HP FOV LP Mag
———- = ————
LP FOV HP Mag

You multiply the LP FOV by the LP Mag then divide that number by the HP Mag

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23
Q

What is the formula for actual size?

A

AS = FOV
———
Fit #

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24
Q

Cell Divison

A

Discovered as early as 1842
Has advanced from the observation of cells splitting in two to the description of the movement and activity of the chromosomes under the cell during cell divison

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25
Stem Cells
Stem cells are unspecialized cells All cells come from stem cells. Cells become specialized and then develop into specific types of cells
26
What are cells?
Since cells are the basic unit of life they require nutrients to preform life sustaining processes These life sustaining processes (cellular respiration/metabolism) convert nutrient matter into other useful forms of energy Cells act like open systems and are able to absorb nutrients and excrete waste
27
Cell Membrane
All cells have them A boundary that separates the cell interior from the environment Keeps the cells contents from leaking out Prevents unwanted materials from getting inside the cell, and allows needed materials to enter (semi-permeable)
28
Nucleus
Manages the cell and directs the activities that take place within the cell Contains DNA
29
What is the nuclear membrane?
A lipid bilayer membrane, similar to cell membrane Acts as a boundary between the cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus Contains a dense structure called the nucleolus
30
Lysosomes
Vesicles that break down substances through the use of digestive enzymes This is how good is utilized in cells Larger chemical compounds are broken down into smaller useable ones Can be used as a defence mechanism to kill of microorganisms
31
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Network of folded membranes and tubes that are connected to the nucleus Two types are smooth and rough
32
Rough ER
Has ribosomes which make them look bumpy Ribosomes make proteins which are packaged up in vesicles for transport
33
Smooth ER
Does not have ribosomes Makes lipids and packages up proteins and lipids in vesicles for transport
34
Golgi Apparatus
Vesicles from the ER will usually stop at the Golgi Apparatus Molecules delivered from the ER are modified by enzymes and made fully functional Sorts and repackages the molecules into vesicles which are then transported around the cell
35
Mitochondria
Chemical reactions convert sugar into ATP which is a useable form of energy in cells Provides energy for the cell through cellular respiration
36
What is cellular respiration?
C6H12O6 —> CO2 + H2O + ATP
37
Centriole
In animal cells they help during cell division by moving genetic material into each new cell Most plant cells don’t have them
38
Vacuoles
In animal cells they store food, water and minerals In plant cells they are larger in size and help regulate the amount of water
39
Cell Wall
Found in plant cells, fungi and some bacteria Rigid and provide support to the plant structure Composed of a fibrous material called cellulose
40
Chloroplast
Found in green plants Site of photosynthesis Contains a pigment called Chlorophyll which captures sunlight
41
What is what goes in and comes out of photosynthesis?
In: - Carbon dioxide (CO2) - Water (H2O) - Sunlight (energy) Out: - Oxygen (O2) - Sugar/glucose (C6H12O6)
42
How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related?
They are complementary processes Chloroplasts take in the waste products of cellular respiration and convert them into ingredients necessary for photosynthesis Without one the other cannot occur
43
What is a cell membrane made of?
Made up of a double layer of phospholipids
44
Phospholipid
Has a head region and a tail region The head region is Hydrophilic (loves water) The tail region is Hydrophobic (fears water) The tail region is composed of lipids which separate away from water
45
What is the Fluid Mosaic Model?
A model used to represent the movement of cell membranes
46
The cell membrane contains proteins which can provide what services for the cell?
Transportation of substances across the membrane Help identify cells Transmission of chemical signals/messages
47
How do proteins help the transportation of substances across the membrane?
Proteins can act like channels or bridges to allow chemicals to move in or out
48
How do proteins help identify cells?
Cells have ‘markers’ called antigens that are used to identify the cell The immune system relies on being able to tell which cells are self cells and which are not
49
How do proteins help the transmission of chemical signals/messages?
Hormones attach to receptor proteins on the surface of a membrane to influence a cells activities
50
Describe the transport of protein across the membrane
According to particle theory, particles are in constant motion The movement of these particles in liquid or air is random and which is referred to as Brownian motion Some particles can freely move across a membrane via diffusion This separation of concentrations (high and low) creates a concentration gradient
51
Equilibrium
As time passes the two rates of the processes of entering and exiting will become equal At this point the system is balanced or at equilibrium
52
What is passive transport?
The movement of a particle across a cell membrane without the expenditure of energy (ATP) There are three types of passive transport - diffusion - facilitated diffusion - osmosis
53
Facilitated Diffusion
Some particles are unable to freely diffuse across the membrane (size or charge) so they rely on transport proteins to help them There are two types of transport proteins that aid with facilitated diffusion Channel proteins Carrier proteins
54
Channel proteins
These proteins have tunnels or pores where particles can pass through Usually used for charged particles (ions)
55
Carrier proteins
Have a specific 3D shape that only certain particles can fit into When the correct particle enters it will cause the protein to change shape As the protein moves it releases the particle into the other side of the membrane Usually used for larger particles
56
Osmosis
The diffusion of water molecules across a membrane The water moves toward the side of the membrane with the higher solute concentration
57
Hypotonic
Lower solute concentration in the cell than the solution on the other side of the membrane The solution loses water, the cell gains water and expands
58
Hypertonic
Higher solute concentration in the cell than the solution on the other side of the membrane The solution gains water and the cells loses, deflating the cell
59
Isotonic
Sand solute concentration on either side of the membrane No net gain or loss of water
60
Active Transport
Uses energy in the form of ATP to move a substance across the membrane Cells use active transport when they have to work against the concentration gradient Uses carrier proteins
61
Endocytosis
Cells take in substances that can’t be moved by passive or active transport through endocytosis The membrane forms a pocket around the substance to be transported The membrane folds and encloses the substance forming a vesicle or vacuole
62
Exocytosis
Cells get rid of wastes or excrete hormones or enzymes through exocytosis
63
What is the difference between vesicles and vacuoles?
Vesicles for transportation Vacuoles for storage
64
Receptor meditated endocytosis
Cells can use membrane proteins to assist with endocytosis Protein receptors detect specific chemicals of cells from the environment When a receptor identifies an item for transport, the receptor binds it and triggers endocytosis
65
How is cell size related to diffusion?
The size of a cell is greatly influenced by the rate of diffusion within the cell Cells are packed with solutes so diffusion is a slow process within the cell To ensure access to oxygen and nutrients, cells must minimize the distance over which substances diffuse This limits the volume of the cell
66
What is the ideal ratio between surface area and volume?
As cells get larger their surface area does not increase at the same rate as their volume The ideal situation is to have a large surface area but a small volume
67
How is cell specialization related to single celled and multicellular organisms?
When single celled organisms grow they are restricted to their size as they will not be able to effectively perform all their life sustaining processes if it grows to large If the organism needs to be larger it is to its advantage to split up the workload among a variety of cells
68
Cell Specialization
Multicellular organisms must have differentiated cells that are capable of performing the numerous jobs needed to be done within the organism
69
Define: Cell
Single unit of life
70
Define: Tissue
A grouping of cells that are connected together with similar structure and function
71
Define: Organ
A grouping of tissues that work together to perform specific functions
72
Define: System
A grouping of organs that work together to perform complex functions
73
Define: Organism
A grouping of systems that work together to sustain life
74
What is photosynthesis?
The main function of plants It occurs in the leaves but relies on all parts of the plant for it to occur
75
Spongy Tissue
Located below the palisade tissue Used to help with the exchange of gases and water
76
Palisade Tissue
Main performer of photosynthesis Tightly packed cells are narrow to improve efficiency
77
Epidermal Cells
Protective layers on the outside of the leaf Durable but transparent Cuticle is waxy
78
Vascular Tissue
Transports fluid through the leaf (leaf veins) Xylem (water) and phloem (sugar)
79
Stomata
Small opening in the epidermal layer Allows gases to enter and exit the leaf Regulated by guard cells
80
Gas Exchange in Plants
Water loss occurs in leaves Water vapour diffuses out of the leaf bus the stomata through the process of transpiration I
81
Lenticels
Perforations I’m bark and roots that allow for the exchange of gases
82
How are guard cells and stomata related?
Guard cells open and close the stomata openings to regulate gas exchange and water loss
83
How do guard cells regulate the opening?
Through the use of turgor pressure Turgor pressure is the pressure exerted on a plant cell wall by water passing into the cell by osmosis The guard cells fill with water, becoming more turgid, which opens the stomata Water leaving the guard cells will flatten the cells and the stomata closes
84
What are the characteristics of the xylem?
Carries water and minerals Dead Flows from roots to leaves
85
What are the characteristics of the phloem?
Carries sugars/glucose Alive Flows from leaves to roots
86
Adhesion
Water attracted to other substances
87
Cohesion
Water attracted to water
88
Xylem and Water Transport: The Push
Turgor pressure inside of root cells push water As root cells being minerals into the xylem through active transport, the mineral concentration in the xylem sap increases increases This increases the tendency of water to diffuse into the root xylem by osmosis Water flows in building root pressure in the xylem vessels
89
Xylem and Water Transport: The Pull
As water vapour exits the leaf (transpiration) the leaf becomes drier This causes water to diffuse out of the leaf cells and into the fluid between the cells, where solutes are more concentrated Cohesive forces between the water molecules causes more water to be pulled up the xylem vessels in the leaf, replacing the water water that has been evaporated
90
Phloem and Sugar Transportation
Sugar, minerals and other nutrients are pumped into the leaf phloem by active transport Sugar concentration increases in phloem cells, water follows the sugar by osmosis Cells swell with the increase of turgor pressure Phloem sap flows down the concentration gradient The fluid pressure forces the phloem sap through the pores
91
Phototropism
The tendency for a plant to grow towards a light source to increase its rate of photosynthesis
92
What was the Darwin & Darwin Phototropism Experiment?
Driving Question: What part of the plant senses the light stimulus? 4 different conditions: - tip removed - tip covered with opaque cap - tip covered with transparent cap - stem covered by opaque shield Concluded that the tip responds to light and tells the plant which direction to grow
93
What was the Boysen-Jensen Phototropism Experiment?
Driving Question: If there is a signal being sent from the seedlings tip, what was the nature of that signal? Cut the tips of two seedlings and placed a gelatin block on one and a block of mica (rock) on the other He placed the tips back on top of the blocks Concluded that the signal was a chemical sent from the tip
94
Auxins
Chemical released in the tip of the plant that accelerates cell growth on the shaded side of the plant
95
Negative gravitropism
The tendency for plants to grow away from the pull of gravity Has to do with auxins
96
Gravitropism in Roots
The effects of auxin are different in roots Increases in auxin inhibit root growth If a root is placed sideways, auxin collects along its lower side. Cell growth is inhibited on that side, whereas the cells along the upper side continue to grow longer. As a result the root turns downward Process is called positive gravitropism

Science 10 (4 decks)

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