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Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

Testosterone

A
  • synthesized in male leydig cell of tests and aid in maturation
  • androgen circulate through body promoting secondary sex characteristics
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2
Q

Estradiol

A
  • Primary estrogen in women and synthesized in the theca cells of the ovarian follicle
  • INCREASE secondary sex characteristics
  • regulations of ovarian cycle
  • control of certain metabolic processes
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3
Q

Cortisol

A
  • synthesized in female/male
  • INCREASE glycogen synthesis/gluconeoegenesis in skeletal muscle by DECREASE in glucose uptake + DECREASE in protien synthesis + INCREASE protien catabolism

Adipose tissue : INCREASE lipid mobilization and DECREASE glucose uptake

WANTS TO KEEP GLUCOSE IN BLOOD STREAM

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4
Q

Progesterone

A
  • Mainly in females
  • Protect Uterline lining
  • stimulate mammallary tissues
  • synthesis in low level of testes
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5
Q

Gram positive in bacteria

A
  • more peptidoglycan
  • stains red/pink
  • readily digested by lysosome
  • NO outermembrane - EASY TO PENETRATE
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6
Q

Gram Negative

A

thin Peptidoglycan

- YES to outer memberane - hard to kill/penetrate

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7
Q

Complement system

A

part of immune system that enhances( complements) the ability of antibodies/phagocytic cells to clear microbes/damanged cells from an organism

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8
Q

microtubule

A

Alpha-tublulin and beta tubulin

used in mitotic spindles
+ sing= adding and moving away from nucleus
- sign = moving toward nucleus

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9
Q

microfilament

A 
smallest 
g actin = gobular 
F-actin = filamentou= polymerized Gactin 
\+ direction = polymerization 
- direction = depolymerization
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10
Q

What is the action of endonuclease

A

it acts on double stranded DNA

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11
Q

DNA measures in what form of energy

A

UV absorbtion = because single and double stranded DNA absorb different amounts due to base stacking * hyperchromic effect)

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12
Q

Why would replication come to a halt in the absence of topoisomerase?

A

movement of the replication complex would be energetically impossible

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13
Q

what do topoisomerase do?

A

it stablixes double stranded DNA that is wound or unwound.

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14
Q

tumor suppressing gene

A

if gene that leads to a cancer is knocked out gene

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15
Q

topoismerase

A

DNA becomes overwound when helicase unwinds- so it needs an enzyme to stablize.

without topoisomerase- replication cannot move energentically forward- tight coiling of DNA will halt replication

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16
Q

what is a proto-oncogene?

A

normal gene that could become an oncogene due to mutation or increase expression

( mneumonic = pro = likely
ongocene = cancer….. put both of them together, likely to develop into cancer)

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17
Q

What is used to open up an existing plasmid so that a new one can be interested

A

restriction site , but it need a primer

order: primer sequence - restriction site-(gene)

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18
Q

Vacuole

A
  • holds water

- does not contain DNA/RNA

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19
Q

what do mitochondria and choloplasts have in common?

A

Both are unusual organelles because they contain nuclear encoded with organelles encoded protiens

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20
Q

heterotrophs

A

use energy derived from another organis’s metabolism

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21
Q

Prototropths

A

characterized by the ability to synthesize all compounds needed for growth

Mneumoic: = proactive.

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22
Q

C-amp ( cyclic AMP)

A
  • second messenger triggered when a ligand binds to membrane bound receptor
  • Through G-protien intermediate, adenylate cyclase enzyme converts ATP –> AMP
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23
Q

Where is adenylate cyclase attached

A

Adenylate cyclase is attached to inner layer of the phospholipid and not located in the cytoplasm

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24
Q

Gram-negative

A
  • has an outer lipopolysaccaride layer which protects against certain antibiotic
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25
Q

what are cyclins

A

associated with protien kinase ensures a proper progression of cell division

  • are phosphorylated protiens responsible for specific events in cycle divisions such as microtubule formation and chromatin remodeling
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26
Q

what is p53 used for in the cell cycle

A

P53 is a tumor repressor gene to stop/regulate cell cycle

when there is a p53 missing - the cell cycle goes AWALL and potentially causes cancer

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27
Q

What is congugation in terms of reproduction of cells

A

= sexual donor F+ ( male) sends its sex pilus to a F- ( female)

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28
Q

Transformation

A

uptake of DNA from surrounding

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29
Q

tranduction

A

pass down of genetic material through bacteriphage

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30
Q

What is (+RNA) look like

A

the same template as mRNA

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31
Q

what does (-RNA ) look like

A

need to be converted by template mRNA

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32
Q

Lyosome

A
  • hydrolyzes protien, carbohydrate, and nuclecic acid
  • pH interior is acidic! ph ~ 5
  • has a single lipid bilayer
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33
Q

intermediate filaments

A
  • middle sized compared to microfilaments and microtubules
  • 8-12 nm in diameter
  • differ based on location ( epithelial cells- keratin ) and ( muscle = desmin)
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34
Q

Where does the signal receptor protien bind

A

the signal receptor protien minds to tbe signal peptide and brings the protien into the ER

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35
Q

Desmosomes do what?

A

help maintain the skin barrier

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36
Q

Gap Junction are located where and do what?

A

Gap junctions are located in the heart

  • used for transporting cytoplasmic calcium between cells to allow for synchorinzied contraction of smooth muscle
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37
Q

If you have 30 mmol of D,L glyceraldehyde, what {} D and what [L] do you ahve?

A

you have 15 mmol D glyceraldehyde and 15 mmol of L glyceraldehyde

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38
Q

If red blood cells lyse the intercellular ions will alter the blood plasma concentration levels because…

A

there is a higher level of potassium inside rather than outside. the potassium will now be outside since the RBC are lysed, and the plasma concentration will increase.

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39
Q

Cell cycle

Diploid is now much

A

2n

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40
Q

cell cycle

haploid is how much

A

n

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41
Q

G1, s, G2 is part of which phase in the cell cycle

A

Interphase

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42
Q

M in the cell cycle stands for what?

A

mitosis

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43
Q

Nerve cells are arrested in what phase in the cell cycle and why?

A

G0 because nerve cells do not divide and are just arrested in that position.

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44
Q

Adhesion

A

think water in the testtube…

  • INTERmolecular attraction - like the water adheres to the side of the testtube–> hence there it makes a concave minicus.
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45
Q

cohesion

A

attraction to one another “ co-habitly” happens with water.
INTRAmolecular attraction is greater than the intermolecular attraction

+ w/ surgac

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46
Q

cohesion

A

attraction to one another “ co-habitly” happens with water.
INTRAmolecular attraction is greater than the intermolecular attraction

+ w/ surface tension –> pulls force toward center which makes a dome. `

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47
Q

Lyme’s disease

A

occurs by ticks = wood ( less wood in urban area)

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48
Q

Where do new blood cells originate from?

A

bone marrow! New blood cells are originated in the bone marrow

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49
Q

What is the trigger of coagulation?

A

The releasse of tissue factor from damaged endothelial cells trigger the pathway that ultimately results in clot formation

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50
Q

if someone has an hemmorrhage, there is a loss of blood. what will be affected… ADH or Aldosterone?

A

ADH?`

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51
Q
  • afferent arteriole goes where to the kideny
A

toward the glomerulus

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52
Q
  • efferent artiole goes where in the kindey
A

away from the glomerulus

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53
Q

define renal plasma flow

A

the volume of blood delivered to the kidneys per unit time

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54
Q

define glomerular filtration rate?

A
  • how well the kidenys are working - how much blood passes through the glomellucli/minute
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55
Q

define glomerular filtration rate?

A
  • how well the kidenys are working - how much blood passes through the glomellucli/minute
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56
Q

in the kidney what kind of transport system is used?

A

antiport ( secondary transport)

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57
Q

Calcitrol

A

important hormone control Calcium homeostatsis- synethesis on the proximal tubule.

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58
Q

glomemular filtration barrier

A

has podocytes, fenestrated endothelium+ glomerular basement membrane

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59
Q

Aldosterone

A

acts on the istal convoluted tubule

  • promotes sodium reabsoption and water will follow– therefore blood volume increase and increase in blood presure.
  • increase potassium and hydrogen excretion as well into the filtrate.
  • KEEP THE BLOOD OSMOLARITY THE SAME
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60
Q

ADH (vasopressin0

A
  • MNEUMINIC - Always Digging Holes
  • makes H20 leave therefore changes osmolarity and concentrates urine.
    example: when dehydrated increase in ADH and INcrease in Aldosterone to converve resourses therefore the Peepee is YELLOW and highly concentrated.
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61
Q

ADH (vasopressin0

A
  • MNEUMINIC - Always Digging Holes
  • makes H20 leave therefore changes osmolarity and concentrates urine.
    example: when dehydrated increase in ADH and INcrease in Aldosterone to converve resourses therefore the Peepee is YELLOW and highly concentrated.
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62
Q

Arteriole - what is their function

A

arterioles are far more numerous than artieres and play the largest role in elevation of systemic vascular resistance

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63
Q

Prions

A

misfolded protien that does not activate the immune system

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64
Q

Bone marrow synthesize what types of cells of the immune system

A

Bone marrow synthesize B and T lymphocyte.

B mature in the Bone Marrow

T cells migrate to the thymus to mature

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65
Q

Thymus is the only lymphoid organ that does not directly fight antigens why?

A

because it is a site of maturation site for T lymphocytes precursors because these precursors must be isolated from the foreign antigens to prevent premature activation.

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66
Q

Monocytes and macrophages what types of immune cells?

A

nonspecific immune cells involved with phagocytosis of foriegn matter

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67
Q

Name the two chains of an immunoglobulin

A

light and heavy chains = it makes a Y shape

there are some constant regions and others are variable.

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68
Q

What is the constant region involved ?

A

the constant region is involved with the recrument and binding of other cells of the immune system - macrophage

when antibody bind to target (antigen)

  • neutralization the antigen
  • clumping together ( aggulationing) - the antigen and the antibody into large+insoluble protien complexes that can be phagozytized
  • opsonization - mark pathogen for destruction
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69
Q

CAdherin

A
  • group of glycoprotien that mediate CAlcium dependent cell adhesion –> cadherins often hold similsr types of cell together - such as epithelial cells

E=Epithelial cells = E-cadherein
N-cadherin= nerve cell
- they form tight junctions

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70
Q

Integrin

A

Mneumonic ( integrates)

  • CAM (
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71
Q

Integrin

A

Mneumonic ( integrates)

  • CAM (cell-adhesion molecule) - a group of protien that all have two member spanning chains called Alpha and Beta
  • play an important role in cellular signaling and can greatly impact cellular function by promoting cellular d…( FINISH THIS CARDD).
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72
Q

Selectin

A

MNEUMONIC ( SELECTIVE)

  • binds to a carbohydrate molecule that project from other cell surfaces
  • expressed on white blood cells and endothelial cells that line the blood vessels
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73
Q

Arteries to which organ normal carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood?

A

LUNG
the pulmonary artery = carrying blood away from theheart to the lung to be oxygenerated. Normally it is deoxygenated.

also recruits blood supply of full oxygenated blod supply

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74
Q

Upon inspiration - diaphragm does what?

A

Contract

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75
Q

upon expiration - disphragm does what?

A

relaxes

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76
Q

Total Lung capacity ( TLC) - definition

A

total amount of air the lung can hold

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77
Q

Tidal Volume

A
  • the amount of air exchnaged in a normal breath
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78
Q

Residual volume

A

mimimum amount of air that remains in the lung at all times

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79
Q

vital capacity

A

the maximum amount of air that can be moved in a single respiratory cycle

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80
Q

Define Congugation ( bacterial reproducition”)

A

MNEUMONIC “ congugal”

sexual reproduction in eukaryotes aka sex pilus

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81
Q

Define Transduction ( reproduction)

A

transduction is the transferring of information between bacterial species requires a virus as as vector

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82
Q

Define Transformation ( Reproduction

A

Transformation transforms itself by taking DNA form the surrounding and insert into genome “ Naked DNA” NO VECtOR needed

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83
Q

the central dogma - define

A

DNA– RNA – Protien

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84
Q

Sense strand RNA

A

is made of the coding strand

“ it makes sense that it will look like RNA”

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85
Q

antisense strand

A
  • read 3’ –> 5’ but RNA is synthesized 5’ to 3’
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86
Q

Negative sense strand

A

-viral RNA with base of complementary to that of mRNA. -> during replication it serves as a template for the transciption of the complement RNA and it makes cRNA ( complementary RNA) - serves as a template for protien synethesis

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87
Q

positive sense strand

A
  • complementary RNA which serves as a template fro protein synthesis.
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88
Q

Complement system in the immune system

A

There are two types of methods

  • classical pathway - requires antigen binding
  • alternative pathway - requires antibody independent
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89
Q

interferon

A

a cytokine that can recruit immune responses

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90
Q

Tendons connect what to what

A

Tendon connect bone to muscle

MNEUMONIC “ meat tenderizer”

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91
Q

Ligaments connect what to what

A

ligament connects bone to bone

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92
Q

GLUT means what

A

glucose transporters

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93
Q

GLUT II ( 2)

A
  • low affinity ( HIGH KM)
  • high concentration of glucose
  • liver takes up extra glucose
  • pancreas - uptake glucose - signals insulin to kick in
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94
Q

GLUT 4

A

high affinity (low km)
- medium or low concentration of glucose
- regulates sugar in body
exocytosis stimulatess insulin

endocytosis inhibits insulin

MNEUMONIC “ 4 greater affinity than 2 … 4 is a greater number than 2”

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95
Q

GLUT 1

A

low glucose concentration used in ubiquitous tisue

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96
Q

GLUT 2

A

HIGH glucose concenration action to pancreas and liver

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97
Q

GLUT 4

A

normal glucose concentration action to adipose, skeletal muscle and cardio muscle

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98
Q

When there is an elevated amount of glucose it goes through ______ tranporter which then ATP is produced and activates the release of insulin

A

GLUT 2

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99
Q

What are the 4 tenants of the cell theory?

A
  1. All living things are composed of cells
  2. Cells are the basic functional unit of life
  3. cells only arise from other cells
  4. cells store information using nucelic acid
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100
Q

Sertoli cells

A

supportive cells

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101
Q

Leydig cells

A

secretes testosterone

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102
Q

Totipotent cells

A

Cells are capable of becoming any cell in the human body or even the placenta

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103
Q

Pluripotent

A

pluripotent cells are capable of becoming many cells but not all cell types

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104
Q

determined cells

A

aka ( committed cells) are tired to one lineage .
cannot be turned into any other type of cell.

” its fate it determined”

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105
Q

differntiated cells

A

have under gone differentiated, which means that they are no longer capable of becoming all cell types

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106
Q

ductus venous

A

reduce blood flow from the liver

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107
Q

ductus arterisus

A

reduce blood flow from the lungs

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108
Q

forman ovale

A

move blood from right artium to left atrium

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109
Q

calcitonin

A

” tones down” calcium in the blod

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110
Q

parathyroid hormone( PTH)

A

increaes calcium blood levels

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111
Q

Chymotrypsin

A

prefenetially cleaves peptide bond next to the large hydrophophic aromatic amino acids

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112
Q

alpha- D- glucose and beta -D-glucose have opposite absolute configurations because…

A

they are not enantiomers because enantiomers means that every carbon must be different

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113
Q

Chief cell

A

secrets pepsinogen

MNEUMONIC “( the chief is the main ruler… we need pepsinogen for anything to break down!”

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114
Q

parietal cells

A

secrets HCL

converts pepsinogen to pepsin ( active form)

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115
Q

mucous cell

A

bicarbonate rich mucus that protects the muscular wall from harsh acidic enviroments ( ph about 2)

116
Q

enteropeptidase

A

secreted in the small intestine.
- involed in activation of other digestive enzymes from acccessory organs of digestion

  • activate trypinsogen to trypsin!!!
  • activate procarboxypeptidase A and B into their active form
117
Q

secretin

A
  • regulates hydrogen ion concentation by decreasing the amount of HCL secretion
  • aka enterogastrone - which slows the motility through the digestive tract
118
Q

Brush Border enzymes

A
  • disaccarides ( sucrase, lactase, maltase, isomaltase)
  • peptidase
    - dipeptidase
    - aminopeptidase
119
Q

Ghrelin

A

promotes sensation of hunger and therefore increases the feeding behavior
( MNEUMONIC - GRRRRR im hungry)

120
Q

Leptin + CCK

A

promotes satiety and decreases the feeding behavior

121
Q

Gastrin

A

increases HCl production and gastric motility

122
Q

What enzymes are released from the pancreas for the digestive system?

A
  • carboxypeptidase A and B
  • trypsinogen
  • chymotrypsinogen
123
Q

Salivary amylase

A
  • capable of hydrolzying straches into smaller sugars
124
Q

4 Fs of hypothalamus

A
  • food
  • fight
  • flight
  • fucking
125
Q

Peptide bond characteristics

A
  • has planar geometry
  • partial double bond
  • has resonance

Not highly reactive because it makes up protiens!!

126
Q

Endolympth and perilymph are part of which system in the body?

A

the auditory system

  • it is part of the cochlea and the vestibule
127
Q

Define endolymph

A
  • rich in potassium fluid that surounds the hair cells in teh inner ear.
  • found within the membraneous labyrith
128
Q

perilymph

A
  • found in the space between the membrane labyrith and boney labyrith
129
Q

White fiber

A

rapid to contract but easy to fatigue ( fast twitch and less myoglobin)

130
Q

Red fiber

A

Slow to contract and sustained )

slow twitch and high levels of myoglobin and energy anerobically

RED in color.. think muscle

131
Q

Tendon attaches what to what

A

muscle to bone!!

Think meat tenderizer

132
Q

ligament hols what to what

A

bone to bone

mneumonic “ ligase is an enzmye that holds the two of the same thing together in this case.. it will be bone and bone)

133
Q

myogenic activity

A

smooth muscle and cardiac muscle can contract without nervous system input but can respond to nervous system but not dependent on it

134
Q

protozoa are prokaryote or eukaryotes?

A

Eukaryotes and it has a nucleus

135
Q

During sympathetic nervous system activation, it affects the digestion by how?

A

it decreases blood flow in the intestines and it decreases perastalsis of the small intestine… food stay longer and can cause constipation.

136
Q

define perastalsis

A

coordinated smooth muscle contraction that moves food through the digestive tract! ( food will wait until perastalsis speed up again)

137
Q

genetic drift

A

gene pool changes by chance

138
Q

lumenal membrane = apical membrane

A

a

139
Q

pancrease will have a higher ratio of rough ER because…

A

it produces peptide hormones such as insulin and glucagon.

140
Q

pancrease will have a higher ratio of rough ER because…

A

it produces peptide hormones such as insulin and glucagon.

141
Q

if red blood cells are placed in pure water, the cells will do what?

A

burst because water will keep etering the cell until it can take more and burst.

if the cells were placed in an hypotonic enviromrnt, then the cells might expand a little bit, and not burst.

142
Q

if red blood cells are placed in pure water, the cells will do what?

A

burst because water will keep etering the cell until it can take more and burst.

if the cells were placed in an hypotonic enviromrnt, then the cells might expand a little bit, and not burst.

143
Q

desmosomes

A

are used primarily for cell-cell adhesion

not communication between cells.

144
Q

Right visual field is processed where in the brain?

A

LEFT side of the brain

145
Q

Left visual field is processed where in the brain?

A

RIGHT side of the brain

146
Q

Name the processing areas of the brain?

A
  • laterial geniculate nucleus
  • visual cortex
  • superior colliculus
147
Q

Parallel procecssing

A

ability to identify characteristics and apply it to a memory to recall a word to desribe an object
‘aka identify a cheetah

” ALso known as the VENTRAL”WHAT” PATHWAY

148
Q

Feature Detection

A
  • recongition of features idenity of the desired object in the visual field “ aka find your friend in a large crowd”

” also known as DORSAL” WHERE” PATHWAY

149
Q

aneuploidy definition in genetics

A

abnormal number of chromsomes in a cell.

150
Q

Adrenal Cortex

A

Makes steriod hormones - glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids

  • cortisol, aldosterone,
151
Q

Adrenal medulla

A

Males peptide hormone

  • epinephrine
152
Q

Follicular Stage

A

dominated by estrogen

153
Q

Luteal stage -

A

Dominated by progresterone

154
Q

Location of spermatogenesis

A

Semnifierious tubules

155
Q

RNA is snytnesized where?

A

in the nucleoli.

cells have multiple mucleloi depending on activity level

156
Q

Operon structure

A

Regulator - Promoter - Operator - Structural gene

Regulator = makes the repressor gene
Promotor - where the RNA polyermase hangs out
Operator - where the regulartor attaches to prevent the RNA polymerase from working
Structural gene - the gene interested to be transcribed

157
Q

Operon structure

A

Regulator - Promoter - Operator - Structural gene

Regulator = makes the repressor gene
Promotor - where the RNA polyermase hangs out
Operator - where the regulartor attaches to prevent the RNA polymerase from working
Structural gene - the gene interested to be transcribed

158
Q

Transcription factors have 2 domanins. Define

A

Activation domain
- DNA binding domain

Activating domain bind to coregulatoe that affect gene transcription - aka histone acyltransferase which modify histone structure - chromatin structure

159
Q

Enhancers define

A

Are transcriptioal regulator sequences that function by enchancing the activity RNA polymerase at a single promotor site.

160
Q

G1/S check point does what?

A

Cell good to replicate?

161
Q

S/G2 Check point does what?

A

DNA replication okay?

162
Q

G2/M check point does what?

A

Ready to undergo division

163
Q

G Coupled receptor

A

Gs - stimulate Adenylate cyclase
Gi = inhibit adenylate cyclase

Gq= Active phopholi[ase C

164
Q

G Coupled receptor

A

Gs - stimulate Adenylate cyclase
Gi = inhibit adenylate cyclase

Gq= Active phopholipase C

165
Q

what is Gastrin’s stimulus, target, and site?

A

Gastrin is stimulated when ACH is released from the vagus nerve.. It stimulates HCL production in the stomach

166
Q

what is secretin’s stimulus, target and site of prouction

A

Secretin is stimulated by HCl in the chyme which caues the stimulated secretion of sodium bicarbononate and enxyme ( pancreatic enzyme)

167
Q

when is CCK released?

A

The arrival of chyme with high fat content which stimualte enzyme secretion from the stomach and decreases motor acitivity in the stomach.

168
Q

Renal plasma flow

A

volume of blood delivered to the kidneys per unit time

169
Q

Glomerular filtration rate

A

how well the kidneys are working - how much blood passes through the glomerular per minute

170
Q

What kinds of transport is in the kidney, active, passive?

A

all anutiport systems ( secondary transport system)

171
Q

centrioles are made up of what?

A

microtubules

172
Q

Denaturation is a exothermic or endothermic procress?

A

Endothermic because heat must be supplied

173
Q

renaturation is an endothermic or exothermic process?

A

Exothermic because NO heat is required

174
Q

Primary Structure of protirn

A

string of amino acids

175
Q

Seconary Structure of Protien

A

alpha helices and beta sheets.

ONLY HYDROGEN BONDING OCCURS HERE

176
Q

Thirtary Structure of Protein

A
  • more active protien folding,
  • nonpolar and polar groups interaction
  • vanderwalls
  • Ionic interactions
177
Q

Neural Crest cell is dervied from which germ layer?

A

ectoderm

178
Q

in metabolic hormone reactions, you need to know the source and the player ( Receptor)

Example: leptin = hormone
Hormone recepotr is also needed

A

Mice should be able to produce leptin and be able to respond to it (aka have active leptin receptors)

179
Q

Which mitocondrial characteristics differs the most frm nuclear genome characteristics?

A

EVERY base in the mitochondrial DNA codes for a product, whereas in the nuclear genome, there are introns and exons.

180
Q

Which mitocondrial characteristics differs the most frm nuclear genome characteristics?

A

EVERY base in the mitochondrial DNA codes for a product, whereas in the nuclear genome, there are introns and exons. Exons are EXpressed and INtrons remain INside.

181
Q

Which mitocondrial characteristics differs the most frm nuclear genome characteristics?

A

EVERY base in the mitochondrial DNA codes for a product, whereas in the nuclear genome, there are introns and exons. Exons are EXpressed and INtrons remain INside.

182
Q

Groups I and II introns are self splicing, which mean there is no need of enzymes to cleave or catalyze the introns and form a lariat.

A

In non-group number introns, they will undergo splicing with the enzyme spliceosome which a uracil rich snRNA is involved in the splicing process.

Lariat is formed in both processes, in

183
Q

Groups I and II introns are self splicing, which mean there is no need of enzymes to cleave or catalyze the introns and form a lariat.

A

In non-group number introns, they will undergo splicing with the enzyme spliceosome which a uracil rich snRNA is involved in the splicing process.

Lariat is formed in both processes, in

184
Q

What is the step by step mechanism of the muscle contraction?

A

Action potential results in a muscle contration

t-tubule depolarization

  • Sacroplasmic reticulum releases calcium
  • Calcium binds to Tropinon complex which allows the tropomyosin to expose the myosin binding sites on actin.
185
Q

With competitive inhibitors, if you increase the concentration of the substrate it will overpower the inhibition.

A

Vmax will stay the same and Km wll increase

186
Q

Hematocrit define

A

hematocrit = percent of red blood cells by volume in the blood

187
Q

when there is a decrease in the sodium ions detected in the macula densa, it stiumulates renin via the juxtaglomercular granular cells

renin then decreases the resistance in the afferent artioles and increases the resistance in the efferent artieroles.

Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin

A

a decrease in the resistance afferent arteriole increases renal blood flow and increases in GFR

an increase in the resistance in teh efferent arteriole increases the GFR but decreases the renal plasma flow.

188
Q

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system ( RAAS) regulates what

A

it regulates blood pressure and blood volume

189
Q

Prosthetic group

A

a cofactor or coenzyme covenetly bonded to a protien to permit its function

MNEUOMINC - a prothetic is something to help with function
ex. prosthetic group hellps moving the body

190
Q

body temperatire of a human is at what temperature

A

37 C

191
Q

CUT PYE

cytosine, uracil, thymine = pyrimidine

A

1 ringed structures

192
Q

PURE AS GOLD

purine - adenine and guanine

A

2 ringed structures

193
Q

in the loop of henle ( kidney) filtrate leaving the loop is generally has a lower solute concentration than filtrate entering the loop of henle ( due to the counter current multipler effect)

A

in the vacsa recta, there is a concentration difference as you go deeper and deper tinto the loop of henle area

194
Q

in the loop of henle ( kidney) filtrate leaving the loop is generally has a lower solute concentration than filtrate entering the loop of henle ( due to the counter current multipler effect)

A

in the vacsa recta, there is a concentration difference as you go deeper and deper tinto the loop of henle area

195
Q

At ph 7.4, normal phsyiological which AA are charged + and _

A

Argine and lysine = +

Apartic acid and glutamic acid = -

196
Q

At ph 7.4, normal phsyiological which AA are charged + and _

A

Argine and lysine = + ( Positive Sign(

Apartic acid and glutamic acid = - ( negative sign )

197
Q

Westen blot does what?

A

alalyze protien

198
Q

Southen blot does what?

A

analyze DNA

199
Q

Northern blot does what?

A

Analyze RNA

200
Q

sense strand = the same strand as the RNA

Antisense strand= the template strand

A

Antisense molecules can bind together - forming a double stranded product

201
Q

Nucleoside diphosphate kinase takes a phosphate group from the ATP and places it on the GDP to make GTP

A

it basically adds a phosphate group

202
Q

Release Factor

A

it recognizes stop codon and terminates protien synthesis

STOP codons are UAA, UGA, UAG

203
Q

RNA polymerase polymerases RNA using fre floating uracil

A

RNA polymerase initates the synthesis of polynucleotide strand

Neds RNA primer to start transcription –> created by RNA polymerase.

204
Q

Physiological pH is what?

A

7.4

205
Q

Pulmonary artery travels away from the heart carrying deoxygenated blood to the lungs to get oxygenated

A

Arteries always carry blood AWAY from the heart, but the blood does not always have to be oxygenarted

206
Q

Vein travel towards the lung

A

Pulmonary vein carries blood towards the heart from the lungs after oxygenation

207
Q

Spermatogensis details - when is it haploid vs diploid

A

Haploid = at the secondary spermaocyte

diplod at the primary spermaoctye

208
Q

Parthenogenesis - define?

A

this is when a female can develop a new individual without ferilization occuring

bacteria do not have a male or female

209
Q

Bacteria can reproduce in which ways?

A
  • binary fusion
  • budding
  • asexual reproduction
210
Q

Homologous function define in evolution

A

homologous functions are similar in anatomy but differ in function

MNUEMONIC : think homologue chromosome- they serve as the same function to carry genes, yet each one may hace differnt genes which leads to different function.

211
Q

Total lung capacity define

A

it is the total amount of air the lungs can hold including all of the residual air

212
Q

Total lung capacity define

A

it is the total amount of air the lungs can hold including all of the residual air

213
Q

ADH only acts where?

A

the collecting duct

214
Q

Aldosterone acts where?

A

it acts on the distal convoluted tubule

215
Q

Hypothalamus has a LARGE range of functions

A
  • including controllilng temperature, hunger/ thurst and fatigue
  • it also is the command center for the anterior pitutary –> which regulates thryiod hormones ( and that influnces metabolism by increasing/decreasing it)
216
Q

During inhalation, the throaic cavity increases therefore the pressure within the cavity decreases ( yeilding a negative pressure phenomenon)

DOES THE diaphragm contract or relax during inhalation?

A

it contracts

217
Q

During exhalation, the thoraic cavity decreases therefore the pressure increases causing the air to leave the lungs.

DOes the diapharmn contract or relax during inhalation?

A

It relaxes

218
Q

The embryo becomes a fetus when??

A

at 9 weeks

219
Q

At what stage of the menstural cycle is the estrogen levels lowest?

A

during the menstruation

220
Q

at what stage of the menstrual cycle is the estrogen the highest

A

the LH surge to cause ovulation.

221
Q

Active immunity - occurs when the antibody are creased in response to an antigen

A

Think Vaccination - the dead virus in injected into the body to create antibodies again the virus ( THUS CALLED ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY) - because the vaccine was dead adn not an active bacterial

222
Q

define the correct path of blood in the human body?

A

superior/inferior vena cava -> right atrium –> left atrium –> Lungs –> left atria –> left ventricle -> BODY

223
Q

what is the electrical path of the heart?

A

SA node –> AV node –> bundle of HIS –> purkinjee fibers

224
Q

Can water soluble vitamins be filtered into the bowman’s capsule?

A

YES it can. Only essential things cannot such as

  • leukocyte ( immune system )
  • plasma protien ( osmotic pressure)
  • Polysaccaride - ( glucose supply )
225
Q

Yellow bone marrow is useful for what?

A

it is yelow because it is high in fat cells that serve as energy storage site

226
Q

T8 = cytotoxic cell ( killer cells) use MH1

A

kills cells that are infected with the virus

227
Q

T8 = cytotoxic cell ( killer cells) use MH1

A

kills cells that are infected with the virus

228
Q

define the stages of Aerobic respiration?

A

Glycolysis+Kreb cycle+ Electric transport chain

229
Q

Anerobic respiration has what stages

A

Just glycolysis

230
Q

What mucles are myogenic in the body?

A

Smooth and cardiac musle are myogenic and can be moldulated by the autonomic NS ( involuntary and no need to activate)

Skeletal muscle requires an impulse from teh neuromuscular junction

231
Q

Directional Selection define

A

when extreme phenotype is favored over other

232
Q

Transformation

A

when the cell takes of DNA from its enviroment

233
Q

Gel electrophoresis does what?

A

it seperates piece of protiens by their size

234
Q

What is the energy obtained from :

  • GLycolysis
  • Kreb
    Net
A

Glycolysis = 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose

kreb = 6 NADH , 2 GTP, 2 FADH2 = 34 ATP
Net 36-38 ATp

235
Q

What is the energy obtained from :

  • GLycolysis
  • Kreb
    Net
A

Glycolysis = 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose

kreb = 6 NADH , 2 GTP, 2 FADH2 = 34 ATP
Net 36-38 ATp

236
Q

ADP + P –> ATP

ATP stores energy to be used for another time. This process is exogonic or endogonic?

A

ENDOGONIC

this is why. - the energy from the protons moving down the electrochemical gradient is used and placed in the bonds of ADP + P –> ATP and all of the eneregy is harnased in the Bonds.

237
Q

NAD+ ———> NADH

oxi reduced

A

the exchange of the hydride ( H-) wil contribute to as an electron

238
Q

If there is a mutation in the gene’s operon, then the gene transciption will be affected .

If there is a mutation in the codiing part of the gene - unlikely to affect the actual transciption - it just makes a crapppy product.

A

The operon has the following
regular – Promotor - Operator - Structural gene

operator is where the the regulator binds

239
Q

Ribosome is made of what?

A

rRNA and protiens

240
Q

Reverse Transctiptase does what?

A

Takes RNA template and makes it into cDNA

  • ## there is no exonuclease activity - which means more error prone
241
Q

Reverse Transctiptase does what?

A

Takes RNA template and makes it into cDNA

  • ## there is no exonuclease activity - which means more error prone
242
Q

What are all the check points in teh cell cycle and their functions?

A

G1/S - prevents replication is the chromosomes if serverely damanged DNA therfore halting the cell cycle before DNA synthesis

S/G2 - has the DNA been synthesized correctly?

G2/M - is the cell big enough to split?

243
Q

Define Transition mutation and Transverion mutation

A

A =T

G triple bond C

If Purine purine OR Pymidine pyrimidine ( transition mutation

If purine Pymrimine ( Transveration mutation ) - when paired incorrectly than its normal partner

244
Q

Aromatic structures = has electrons delocatized but

A

does not necessarily contribute to the nonpolarit

245
Q

symport/antiport are types of what type of transport?

A

secondary active transport

246
Q

osteoclast = break down bone

A

mmeumonic : catastrophe

247
Q

During menopause which hormones decreases?

A
  • protestin,
  • estrogen
  • inhibin
    NOT FSH
248
Q

During menopause which hormones decreases?

A
  • protestin,
  • estrogen
  • inhibin
    NOT FSH
249
Q

cytokine are interferon, interleukin, and growth factors that are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells ( it acts like hormone - it uses signal pathway)

A

often act without circulating through the entire blood system. - they typipically work as local hormones. This makes sense because cykonines would like to have specific jobs to get done. If the cytokines under go the entire circulation, the whole body will react to a single message and that is not effeicent is that now? :0

250
Q

any body surface that can be in contact with the enviroment is lined with epithelial cells. name some in the BODY!

A
  1. Mouth
  2. GI tract ( starts with mouth -> anus) - both have exposure to the outside world
    ( technically THe GI track is outside the body)
  3. Urethra - you PEEE
251
Q

The largest cross section area of all vessels is foudn where?

A

in the capillaries

252
Q

cardiac output ( CO) = Stroke Volume ( SV) x Heart rate ( HR)

A

if you want to decrease the SV you can increase the HR

253
Q

Clonal selection

A

is the process by which certain immature lymphocytes are selected for maturation.

clonoal selection allows only those lymphocyes that demonstrate the ability to reconize foreign antigens and avoid responding to self antigens to mature, those that violate either these conditions are destroyed.

254
Q

Cell-mediated immunity ( T cells ) work against infected cells, cancerous cells, skin grafts and tissue implants.

A

infected cell - cytotixic cell T8

helper T cell - T 4 –> stimulate the B cells ( humoral immunity )

255
Q

Colonal selection - is important to determine only certain types of cells can mature and proliferate.

A

Positive selection -
- cells must show they are capaable of recongizing antigens in the conext o host MHC molecule sand those that can notundergo apoptosis

negative selection - cells that are inappropriately actied by host cells in the absense of infection –> leads to autoimmune diseases
- cell that are unable to recognize antigens presented by MHC molecules , cell that respond too strongly to MHC molecules with self antigen undergo apoptosis

256
Q

Collectively, positive and negative selection allow for the survival of those B and T cells that are able to distingiush between self and nonself- antigens.

A

T cell undergo colonal selection in Thymus

B cells undergo colonal selection in the bone marrow

257
Q

In terms of effective concentrations ( EC ), if there is a lower concentration that can get the job done as much as the high concentration, that means the lower concentration is more effective.

A

This is in reference to the half minimal effective concentration ( EC50)

258
Q

Restriction enzymes that are produced in bacteria that recognize and cut specific squences of viral DNA, protecting the bacertium from the virus.

A

They are in prokaryotes - which means it is in the cytosol.

restriction enzymes make sticky ends that are palindromic

but each restriction enxyme makes different palindromic seqences.

259
Q

CO= HR x SV

A

Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume

260
Q

G protien coupled receptors ( GPCR ) - has 2 transmembrane domains

A

ligand = small peptides ( hormones typically )

261
Q

what is the size order of cells? virus, bacteria and eukaryptic cells

A

virus is the smallest of the 3 organisms.
Eu>bac>virus

bacteria is 100 times larger than virus

eu is 1000 times larger than virus and 10x than bacteria.

262
Q

what is the size order of cells? virus, bacteria and eukaryptic cells

A

virus is the smallest of the 3 organisms.
Eu>bac>virus

bacteria is 100 times larger than virus

eu is 1000 times larger than virus and 10x than bacteria.

263
Q

messenger RNA, mRNA, codes for the order of amino acids within a peptide chain

A

mRNA = code for a specific sqeuence of amino acids

264
Q

Bacteria does have Electron Transport Chain in order to synthesize ATP.

A

Aerobic bacteria uses Oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor

Anerobic bacteria use other substates as their final electron acceptor.

265
Q

Bacteria does have Electron Transport Chain in order to synthesize ATP.

A

Aerobic bacteria uses Oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor

Anerobic bacteria use other substates as their final electron acceptor.

266
Q

NADH is a type of nucleic acid

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

267
Q

NADH is a type of nucleic acid

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

268
Q

the Gene code which codes for enzymes - enzymes catalyze reactions,

A

synthesis of non-protien molecules often requires enzymes

269
Q

There are 2 types of ACH receptors . name and define thewm

A 
nicotinic = ionotropic receptors - uses []gradient 
muscarinic = G protien - slower.
270
Q

There are 2 types of ACH receptors . name and define thewm

A 
nicotinic = ionotropic receptors - uses []gradient ( fast) 
muscarinic = G protien - slower.
271
Q

There are 2 types of ACH receptors . name and define thewm

A 
nicotinic = ionotropic receptors - uses []gradient ( fast) 
muscarinic = G protien - slower.
272
Q

degree of intracellular calcium is correlated with how much a cardiac cell will contract and the degree of the cell contraction coorelates with intracellular calcium

A

higher intracellular calium leads to increased contraction and thus increased cellular shortening.

273
Q

degree of intracellular calcium is correlated with how much a cardiac cell will contract and the degree of the cell contraction coorelates with intracellular calcium

A

higher intracellular calium leads to increased contraction and thus increased cellular shortening.

274
Q

is calcium high intracellularly or extracelluar?

A

INTRACELLULAR

275
Q

transciption factors define :

A

BIND to DNA and subsqentyly recuit RNA polymerase.

276
Q

in terms of the stablizing base pair stacking in the DNA, this is due to the van der walls interactions due to the the turning of the helix brings the base pairs closer to one antother.

A

there only exists HB with completeplementary base pairs. not base pairs top and bottom.

277
Q

After DNA replication, mutations occur and distort the DNA> how can you fix it?

A

you can do nucleotide excision repair - most capatble of removing large patches of DNA that result in the helix disortion aka thymine Dimers can occur by the sun.

278
Q

Proofreading occurs when?

A

it is conduected by DNA polymerase during th DNA replication process

279
Q

Base excions repair occurs when?

A

it repairs demanged DNA that DOES NOT affect the helix

280
Q

mismatch repair

A

corrects improper pairing of the normal base pairs - which was not caught by the proofreading.

281
Q

Nucelotide excision repair -

A

occurs after DNA is replicated. it has the ability to remove large patches of DNA that results in helix distortion. aka thymine dimers can occur.

282
Q

genomic libraries have both coding and noncoding parts of DNA in its library. therefore it is not good to make protiens becaue it still has its introns and exons.

A

on the other hand, cDNA - aka expression libaries - contain smaller gragments of DNA, and only include exons of genes expressed by the sample tissue. they can be used to make recombinant protiens and for gene therapy.

283
Q

genomic libraries have both coding and noncoding parts of DNA in its library. therefore it is not good to make protiens becaue it still has its introns and exons.

A

on the other hand, cDNA - aka expression libaries - contain smaller gragments of DNA, and only include exons of genes expressed by the sample tissue. they can be used to make recombinant protiens and for gene therapy.

284
Q

Define Ubquination:

A

During Ubquination, a aprotien is inactivevd by attaching ubquitin to it. Ubquitin is a small molecule. It acts like a tag that signals the protien transport machinery to ferry the protirn to a proteosome for degration.

285
Q

Define Ubquination:

A

During Ubquination, a aprotien is inactivevd by attaching ubquitin to it. Ubquitin is a small molecule. It acts like a tag that signals the protien transport machinery to ferry the protirn to a proteosome for degration.

286
Q

endosome - part of the eukarytoic cells such that it comes here before it goes to lysysome

A

endosomes provide an environment for material to be sorted before it reaches the degradative lysosom

287
Q

endosome - part of the eukarytoic cells such that it comes here before it goes to lysysome

A

endosomes provide an environment for material to be sorted before it reaches the degradative lysosom

MCAT (10 decks)

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