Biology Flashcards
Testosterone
- synthesized in male leydig cell of tests and aid in maturation
- androgen circulate through body promoting secondary sex characteristics
Estradiol
- Primary estrogen in women and synthesized in the theca cells of the ovarian follicle
- INCREASE secondary sex characteristics
- regulations of ovarian cycle
- control of certain metabolic processes
Cortisol
- synthesized in female/male
- INCREASE glycogen synthesis/gluconeoegenesis in skeletal muscle by DECREASE in glucose uptake + DECREASE in protien synthesis + INCREASE protien catabolism
Adipose tissue : INCREASE lipid mobilization and DECREASE glucose uptake
WANTS TO KEEP GLUCOSE IN BLOOD STREAM
Progesterone
- Mainly in females
- Protect Uterline lining
- stimulate mammallary tissues
- synthesis in low level of testes
Gram positive in bacteria
- more peptidoglycan
- stains red/pink
- readily digested by lysosome
- NO outermembrane - EASY TO PENETRATE
Gram Negative
thin Peptidoglycan
- YES to outer memberane - hard to kill/penetrate
Complement system
part of immune system that enhances( complements) the ability of antibodies/phagocytic cells to clear microbes/damanged cells from an organism
microtubule
Alpha-tublulin and beta tubulin
used in mitotic spindles
+ sing= adding and moving away from nucleus
- sign = moving toward nucleus
microfilament
smallest g actin = gobular F-actin = filamentou= polymerized Gactin \+ direction = polymerization - direction = depolymerization
What is the action of endonuclease
it acts on double stranded DNA
DNA measures in what form of energy
UV absorbtion = because single and double stranded DNA absorb different amounts due to base stacking * hyperchromic effect)
Why would replication come to a halt in the absence of topoisomerase?
movement of the replication complex would be energetically impossible
what do topoisomerase do?
it stablixes double stranded DNA that is wound or unwound.
tumor suppressing gene
if gene that leads to a cancer is knocked out gene
topoismerase
DNA becomes overwound when helicase unwinds- so it needs an enzyme to stablize.
without topoisomerase- replication cannot move energentically forward- tight coiling of DNA will halt replication
what is a proto-oncogene?
normal gene that could become an oncogene due to mutation or increase expression
( mneumonic = pro = likely
ongocene = cancer….. put both of them together, likely to develop into cancer)
What is used to open up an existing plasmid so that a new one can be interested
restriction site , but it need a primer
order: primer sequence - restriction site-(gene)
Vacuole
- holds water
- does not contain DNA/RNA
what do mitochondria and choloplasts have in common?
Both are unusual organelles because they contain nuclear encoded with organelles encoded protiens
heterotrophs
use energy derived from another organis’s metabolism
Prototropths
characterized by the ability to synthesize all compounds needed for growth
Mneumoic: = proactive.
C-amp ( cyclic AMP)
- second messenger triggered when a ligand binds to membrane bound receptor
- Through G-protien intermediate, adenylate cyclase enzyme converts ATP –> AMP
Where is adenylate cyclase attached
Adenylate cyclase is attached to inner layer of the phospholipid and not located in the cytoplasm
Gram-negative
- has an outer lipopolysaccaride layer which protects against certain antibiotic
what are cyclins
associated with protien kinase ensures a proper progression of cell division
- are phosphorylated protiens responsible for specific events in cycle divisions such as microtubule formation and chromatin remodeling
what is p53 used for in the cell cycle
P53 is a tumor repressor gene to stop/regulate cell cycle
when there is a p53 missing - the cell cycle goes AWALL and potentially causes cancer
What is congugation in terms of reproduction of cells
= sexual donor F+ ( male) sends its sex pilus to a F- ( female)
Transformation
uptake of DNA from surrounding
tranduction
pass down of genetic material through bacteriphage
What is (+RNA) look like
the same template as mRNA
what does (-RNA ) look like
need to be converted by template mRNA
Lyosome
- hydrolyzes protien, carbohydrate, and nuclecic acid
- pH interior is acidic! ph ~ 5
- has a single lipid bilayer
intermediate filaments
- middle sized compared to microfilaments and microtubules
- 8-12 nm in diameter
- differ based on location ( epithelial cells- keratin ) and ( muscle = desmin)
Where does the signal receptor protien bind
the signal receptor protien minds to tbe signal peptide and brings the protien into the ER
Desmosomes do what?
help maintain the skin barrier
Gap Junction are located where and do what?
Gap junctions are located in the heart
- used for transporting cytoplasmic calcium between cells to allow for synchorinzied contraction of smooth muscle
If you have 30 mmol of D,L glyceraldehyde, what {} D and what [L] do you ahve?
you have 15 mmol D glyceraldehyde and 15 mmol of L glyceraldehyde
If red blood cells lyse the intercellular ions will alter the blood plasma concentration levels because…
there is a higher level of potassium inside rather than outside. the potassium will now be outside since the RBC are lysed, and the plasma concentration will increase.
Cell cycle
Diploid is now much
2n
cell cycle
haploid is how much
n
G1, s, G2 is part of which phase in the cell cycle
Interphase
M in the cell cycle stands for what?
mitosis
Nerve cells are arrested in what phase in the cell cycle and why?
G0 because nerve cells do not divide and are just arrested in that position.
Adhesion
think water in the testtube…
- INTERmolecular attraction - like the water adheres to the side of the testtube–> hence there it makes a concave minicus.
cohesion
attraction to one another “ co-habitly” happens with water.
INTRAmolecular attraction is greater than the intermolecular attraction
+ w/ surgac
cohesion
attraction to one another “ co-habitly” happens with water.
INTRAmolecular attraction is greater than the intermolecular attraction
+ w/ surface tension –> pulls force toward center which makes a dome. `
Lyme’s disease
occurs by ticks = wood ( less wood in urban area)
Where do new blood cells originate from?
bone marrow! New blood cells are originated in the bone marrow
What is the trigger of coagulation?
The releasse of tissue factor from damaged endothelial cells trigger the pathway that ultimately results in clot formation
if someone has an hemmorrhage, there is a loss of blood. what will be affected… ADH or Aldosterone?
ADH?`
- afferent arteriole goes where to the kideny
toward the glomerulus
- efferent artiole goes where in the kindey
away from the glomerulus
define renal plasma flow
the volume of blood delivered to the kidneys per unit time
define glomerular filtration rate?
- how well the kidenys are working - how much blood passes through the glomellucli/minute
define glomerular filtration rate?
- how well the kidenys are working - how much blood passes through the glomellucli/minute
in the kidney what kind of transport system is used?
antiport ( secondary transport)
Calcitrol
important hormone control Calcium homeostatsis- synethesis on the proximal tubule.
glomemular filtration barrier
has podocytes, fenestrated endothelium+ glomerular basement membrane
Aldosterone
acts on the istal convoluted tubule
- promotes sodium reabsoption and water will follow– therefore blood volume increase and increase in blood presure.
- increase potassium and hydrogen excretion as well into the filtrate.
- KEEP THE BLOOD OSMOLARITY THE SAME
ADH (vasopressin0
- MNEUMINIC - Always Digging Holes
- makes H20 leave therefore changes osmolarity and concentrates urine.
example: when dehydrated increase in ADH and INcrease in Aldosterone to converve resourses therefore the Peepee is YELLOW and highly concentrated.
ADH (vasopressin0
- MNEUMINIC - Always Digging Holes
- makes H20 leave therefore changes osmolarity and concentrates urine.
example: when dehydrated increase in ADH and INcrease in Aldosterone to converve resourses therefore the Peepee is YELLOW and highly concentrated.
Arteriole - what is their function
arterioles are far more numerous than artieres and play the largest role in elevation of systemic vascular resistance
Prions
misfolded protien that does not activate the immune system
Bone marrow synthesize what types of cells of the immune system
Bone marrow synthesize B and T lymphocyte.
B mature in the Bone Marrow
T cells migrate to the thymus to mature
Thymus is the only lymphoid organ that does not directly fight antigens why?
because it is a site of maturation site for T lymphocytes precursors because these precursors must be isolated from the foreign antigens to prevent premature activation.
Monocytes and macrophages what types of immune cells?
nonspecific immune cells involved with phagocytosis of foriegn matter
Name the two chains of an immunoglobulin
light and heavy chains = it makes a Y shape
there are some constant regions and others are variable.
What is the constant region involved ?
the constant region is involved with the recrument and binding of other cells of the immune system - macrophage
when antibody bind to target (antigen)
- neutralization the antigen
- clumping together ( aggulationing) - the antigen and the antibody into large+insoluble protien complexes that can be phagozytized
- opsonization - mark pathogen for destruction
CAdherin
- group of glycoprotien that mediate CAlcium dependent cell adhesion –> cadherins often hold similsr types of cell together - such as epithelial cells
E=Epithelial cells = E-cadherein
N-cadherin= nerve cell
- they form tight junctions
Integrin
Mneumonic ( integrates)
- CAM (
Integrin
Mneumonic ( integrates)
- CAM (cell-adhesion molecule) - a group of protien that all have two member spanning chains called Alpha and Beta
- play an important role in cellular signaling and can greatly impact cellular function by promoting cellular d…( FINISH THIS CARDD).
Selectin
MNEUMONIC ( SELECTIVE)
- binds to a carbohydrate molecule that project from other cell surfaces
- expressed on white blood cells and endothelial cells that line the blood vessels
Arteries to which organ normal carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood?
LUNG
the pulmonary artery = carrying blood away from theheart to the lung to be oxygenerated. Normally it is deoxygenated.
also recruits blood supply of full oxygenated blod supply
Upon inspiration - diaphragm does what?
Contract
upon expiration - disphragm does what?
relaxes
Total Lung capacity ( TLC) - definition
total amount of air the lung can hold
Tidal Volume
- the amount of air exchnaged in a normal breath
Residual volume
mimimum amount of air that remains in the lung at all times
vital capacity
the maximum amount of air that can be moved in a single respiratory cycle
Define Congugation ( bacterial reproducition”)
MNEUMONIC “ congugal”
sexual reproduction in eukaryotes aka sex pilus
Define Transduction ( reproduction)
transduction is the transferring of information between bacterial species requires a virus as as vector
Define Transformation ( Reproduction
Transformation transforms itself by taking DNA form the surrounding and insert into genome “ Naked DNA” NO VECtOR needed
the central dogma - define
DNA– RNA – Protien
Sense strand RNA
is made of the coding strand
“ it makes sense that it will look like RNA”
antisense strand
- read 3’ –> 5’ but RNA is synthesized 5’ to 3’
Negative sense strand
-viral RNA with base of complementary to that of mRNA. -> during replication it serves as a template for the transciption of the complement RNA and it makes cRNA ( complementary RNA) - serves as a template for protien synethesis
positive sense strand
- complementary RNA which serves as a template fro protein synthesis.
Complement system in the immune system
There are two types of methods
- classical pathway - requires antigen binding
- alternative pathway - requires antibody independent
interferon
a cytokine that can recruit immune responses
Tendons connect what to what
Tendon connect bone to muscle
MNEUMONIC “ meat tenderizer”
Ligaments connect what to what
ligament connects bone to bone
GLUT means what
glucose transporters
GLUT II ( 2)
- low affinity ( HIGH KM)
- high concentration of glucose
- liver takes up extra glucose
- pancreas - uptake glucose - signals insulin to kick in
GLUT 4
high affinity (low km)
- medium or low concentration of glucose
- regulates sugar in body
exocytosis stimulatess insulin
endocytosis inhibits insulin
MNEUMONIC “ 4 greater affinity than 2 … 4 is a greater number than 2”
GLUT 1
low glucose concentration used in ubiquitous tisue
GLUT 2
HIGH glucose concenration action to pancreas and liver
GLUT 4
normal glucose concentration action to adipose, skeletal muscle and cardio muscle
When there is an elevated amount of glucose it goes through ______ tranporter which then ATP is produced and activates the release of insulin
GLUT 2
What are the 4 tenants of the cell theory?
- All living things are composed of cells
- Cells are the basic functional unit of life
- cells only arise from other cells
- cells store information using nucelic acid
Sertoli cells
supportive cells
Leydig cells
secretes testosterone
Totipotent cells
Cells are capable of becoming any cell in the human body or even the placenta
Pluripotent
pluripotent cells are capable of becoming many cells but not all cell types
determined cells
aka ( committed cells) are tired to one lineage .
cannot be turned into any other type of cell.
” its fate it determined”
differntiated cells
have under gone differentiated, which means that they are no longer capable of becoming all cell types
ductus venous
reduce blood flow from the liver
ductus arterisus
reduce blood flow from the lungs
forman ovale
move blood from right artium to left atrium
calcitonin
” tones down” calcium in the blod
parathyroid hormone( PTH)
increaes calcium blood levels
Chymotrypsin
prefenetially cleaves peptide bond next to the large hydrophophic aromatic amino acids
alpha- D- glucose and beta -D-glucose have opposite absolute configurations because…
they are not enantiomers because enantiomers means that every carbon must be different
Chief cell
secrets pepsinogen
MNEUMONIC “( the chief is the main ruler… we need pepsinogen for anything to break down!”
parietal cells
secrets HCL
converts pepsinogen to pepsin ( active form)
mucous cell
bicarbonate rich mucus that protects the muscular wall from harsh acidic enviroments ( ph about 2)
enteropeptidase
secreted in the small intestine.
- involed in activation of other digestive enzymes from acccessory organs of digestion
- activate trypinsogen to trypsin!!!
- activate procarboxypeptidase A and B into their active form
secretin
- regulates hydrogen ion concentation by decreasing the amount of HCL secretion
- aka enterogastrone - which slows the motility through the digestive tract
Brush Border enzymes
- disaccarides ( sucrase, lactase, maltase, isomaltase)
- peptidase
- dipeptidase
- aminopeptidase
Ghrelin
promotes sensation of hunger and therefore increases the feeding behavior
( MNEUMONIC - GRRRRR im hungry)
Leptin + CCK
promotes satiety and decreases the feeding behavior
Gastrin
increases HCl production and gastric motility
What enzymes are released from the pancreas for the digestive system?
- carboxypeptidase A and B
- trypsinogen
- chymotrypsinogen
Salivary amylase
- capable of hydrolzying straches into smaller sugars
4 Fs of hypothalamus
- food
- fight
- flight
- fucking
Peptide bond characteristics
- has planar geometry
- partial double bond
- has resonance
Not highly reactive because it makes up protiens!!
Endolympth and perilymph are part of which system in the body?
the auditory system
- it is part of the cochlea and the vestibule
Define endolymph
- rich in potassium fluid that surounds the hair cells in teh inner ear.
- found within the membraneous labyrith
perilymph
- found in the space between the membrane labyrith and boney labyrith
White fiber
rapid to contract but easy to fatigue ( fast twitch and less myoglobin)
Red fiber
Slow to contract and sustained )
slow twitch and high levels of myoglobin and energy anerobically
RED in color.. think muscle
Tendon attaches what to what
muscle to bone!!
Think meat tenderizer
ligament hols what to what
bone to bone
mneumonic “ ligase is an enzmye that holds the two of the same thing together in this case.. it will be bone and bone)
myogenic activity
smooth muscle and cardiac muscle can contract without nervous system input but can respond to nervous system but not dependent on it
protozoa are prokaryote or eukaryotes?
Eukaryotes and it has a nucleus
During sympathetic nervous system activation, it affects the digestion by how?
it decreases blood flow in the intestines and it decreases perastalsis of the small intestine… food stay longer and can cause constipation.
define perastalsis
coordinated smooth muscle contraction that moves food through the digestive tract! ( food will wait until perastalsis speed up again)
genetic drift
gene pool changes by chance
lumenal membrane = apical membrane
a
pancrease will have a higher ratio of rough ER because…
it produces peptide hormones such as insulin and glucagon.
pancrease will have a higher ratio of rough ER because…
it produces peptide hormones such as insulin and glucagon.
if red blood cells are placed in pure water, the cells will do what?
burst because water will keep etering the cell until it can take more and burst.
if the cells were placed in an hypotonic enviromrnt, then the cells might expand a little bit, and not burst.
if red blood cells are placed in pure water, the cells will do what?
burst because water will keep etering the cell until it can take more and burst.
if the cells were placed in an hypotonic enviromrnt, then the cells might expand a little bit, and not burst.
desmosomes
are used primarily for cell-cell adhesion
not communication between cells.
Right visual field is processed where in the brain?
LEFT side of the brain
Left visual field is processed where in the brain?
RIGHT side of the brain
Name the processing areas of the brain?
- laterial geniculate nucleus
- visual cortex
- superior colliculus
Parallel procecssing
ability to identify characteristics and apply it to a memory to recall a word to desribe an object
‘aka identify a cheetah
” ALso known as the VENTRAL”WHAT” PATHWAY
Feature Detection
- recongition of features idenity of the desired object in the visual field “ aka find your friend in a large crowd”
” also known as DORSAL” WHERE” PATHWAY
aneuploidy definition in genetics
abnormal number of chromsomes in a cell.
Adrenal Cortex
Makes steriod hormones - glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids
- cortisol, aldosterone,
Adrenal medulla
Males peptide hormone
- epinephrine
Follicular Stage
dominated by estrogen
Luteal stage -
Dominated by progresterone
Location of spermatogenesis
Semnifierious tubules
RNA is snytnesized where?
in the nucleoli.
cells have multiple mucleloi depending on activity level
Operon structure
Regulator - Promoter - Operator - Structural gene
Regulator = makes the repressor gene
Promotor - where the RNA polyermase hangs out
Operator - where the regulartor attaches to prevent the RNA polymerase from working
Structural gene - the gene interested to be transcribed
Operon structure
Regulator - Promoter - Operator - Structural gene
Regulator = makes the repressor gene
Promotor - where the RNA polyermase hangs out
Operator - where the regulartor attaches to prevent the RNA polymerase from working
Structural gene - the gene interested to be transcribed
Transcription factors have 2 domanins. Define
Activation domain
- DNA binding domain
Activating domain bind to coregulatoe that affect gene transcription - aka histone acyltransferase which modify histone structure - chromatin structure
Enhancers define
Are transcriptioal regulator sequences that function by enchancing the activity RNA polymerase at a single promotor site.
G1/S check point does what?
Cell good to replicate?
S/G2 Check point does what?
DNA replication okay?
G2/M check point does what?
Ready to undergo division
G Coupled receptor
Gs - stimulate Adenylate cyclase
Gi = inhibit adenylate cyclase
Gq= Active phopholi[ase C
G Coupled receptor
Gs - stimulate Adenylate cyclase
Gi = inhibit adenylate cyclase
Gq= Active phopholipase C
what is Gastrin’s stimulus, target, and site?
Gastrin is stimulated when ACH is released from the vagus nerve.. It stimulates HCL production in the stomach
what is secretin’s stimulus, target and site of prouction
Secretin is stimulated by HCl in the chyme which caues the stimulated secretion of sodium bicarbononate and enxyme ( pancreatic enzyme)
when is CCK released?
The arrival of chyme with high fat content which stimualte enzyme secretion from the stomach and decreases motor acitivity in the stomach.
Renal plasma flow
volume of blood delivered to the kidneys per unit time
Glomerular filtration rate
how well the kidneys are working - how much blood passes through the glomerular per minute
What kinds of transport is in the kidney, active, passive?
all anutiport systems ( secondary transport system)
centrioles are made up of what?
microtubules
Denaturation is a exothermic or endothermic procress?
Endothermic because heat must be supplied
renaturation is an endothermic or exothermic process?
Exothermic because NO heat is required
Primary Structure of protirn
string of amino acids
Seconary Structure of Protien
alpha helices and beta sheets.
ONLY HYDROGEN BONDING OCCURS HERE
Thirtary Structure of Protein
- more active protien folding,
- nonpolar and polar groups interaction
- vanderwalls
- Ionic interactions
Neural Crest cell is dervied from which germ layer?
ectoderm
in metabolic hormone reactions, you need to know the source and the player ( Receptor)
Example: leptin = hormone
Hormone recepotr is also needed
Mice should be able to produce leptin and be able to respond to it (aka have active leptin receptors)
Which mitocondrial characteristics differs the most frm nuclear genome characteristics?
EVERY base in the mitochondrial DNA codes for a product, whereas in the nuclear genome, there are introns and exons.
Which mitocondrial characteristics differs the most frm nuclear genome characteristics?
EVERY base in the mitochondrial DNA codes for a product, whereas in the nuclear genome, there are introns and exons. Exons are EXpressed and INtrons remain INside.
Which mitocondrial characteristics differs the most frm nuclear genome characteristics?
EVERY base in the mitochondrial DNA codes for a product, whereas in the nuclear genome, there are introns and exons. Exons are EXpressed and INtrons remain INside.
Groups I and II introns are self splicing, which mean there is no need of enzymes to cleave or catalyze the introns and form a lariat.
In non-group number introns, they will undergo splicing with the enzyme spliceosome which a uracil rich snRNA is involved in the splicing process.
Lariat is formed in both processes, in
Groups I and II introns are self splicing, which mean there is no need of enzymes to cleave or catalyze the introns and form a lariat.
In non-group number introns, they will undergo splicing with the enzyme spliceosome which a uracil rich snRNA is involved in the splicing process.
Lariat is formed in both processes, in
What is the step by step mechanism of the muscle contraction?
Action potential results in a muscle contration
t-tubule depolarization
- Sacroplasmic reticulum releases calcium
- Calcium binds to Tropinon complex which allows the tropomyosin to expose the myosin binding sites on actin.
With competitive inhibitors, if you increase the concentration of the substrate it will overpower the inhibition.
Vmax will stay the same and Km wll increase
Hematocrit define
hematocrit = percent of red blood cells by volume in the blood
when there is a decrease in the sodium ions detected in the macula densa, it stiumulates renin via the juxtaglomercular granular cells
renin then decreases the resistance in the afferent artioles and increases the resistance in the efferent artieroles.
Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin
a decrease in the resistance afferent arteriole increases renal blood flow and increases in GFR
an increase in the resistance in teh efferent arteriole increases the GFR but decreases the renal plasma flow.
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system ( RAAS) regulates what
it regulates blood pressure and blood volume
Prosthetic group
a cofactor or coenzyme covenetly bonded to a protien to permit its function
MNEUOMINC - a prothetic is something to help with function
ex. prosthetic group hellps moving the body
body temperatire of a human is at what temperature
37 C
CUT PYE
cytosine, uracil, thymine = pyrimidine
1 ringed structures
PURE AS GOLD
purine - adenine and guanine
2 ringed structures
in the loop of henle ( kidney) filtrate leaving the loop is generally has a lower solute concentration than filtrate entering the loop of henle ( due to the counter current multipler effect)
in the vacsa recta, there is a concentration difference as you go deeper and deper tinto the loop of henle area
in the loop of henle ( kidney) filtrate leaving the loop is generally has a lower solute concentration than filtrate entering the loop of henle ( due to the counter current multipler effect)
in the vacsa recta, there is a concentration difference as you go deeper and deper tinto the loop of henle area
At ph 7.4, normal phsyiological which AA are charged + and _
Argine and lysine = +
Apartic acid and glutamic acid = -
At ph 7.4, normal phsyiological which AA are charged + and _
Argine and lysine = + ( Positive Sign(
Apartic acid and glutamic acid = - ( negative sign )
Westen blot does what?
alalyze protien
Southen blot does what?
analyze DNA
Northern blot does what?
Analyze RNA
sense strand = the same strand as the RNA
Antisense strand= the template strand
Antisense molecules can bind together - forming a double stranded product
Nucleoside diphosphate kinase takes a phosphate group from the ATP and places it on the GDP to make GTP
it basically adds a phosphate group
Release Factor
it recognizes stop codon and terminates protien synthesis
STOP codons are UAA, UGA, UAG
RNA polymerase polymerases RNA using fre floating uracil
RNA polymerase initates the synthesis of polynucleotide strand
Neds RNA primer to start transcription –> created by RNA polymerase.
Physiological pH is what?
7.4
Pulmonary artery travels away from the heart carrying deoxygenated blood to the lungs to get oxygenated
Arteries always carry blood AWAY from the heart, but the blood does not always have to be oxygenarted
Vein travel towards the lung
Pulmonary vein carries blood towards the heart from the lungs after oxygenation
Spermatogensis details - when is it haploid vs diploid
Haploid = at the secondary spermaocyte
diplod at the primary spermaoctye
Parthenogenesis - define?
this is when a female can develop a new individual without ferilization occuring
bacteria do not have a male or female
Bacteria can reproduce in which ways?
- binary fusion
- budding
- asexual reproduction
Homologous function define in evolution
homologous functions are similar in anatomy but differ in function
MNUEMONIC : think homologue chromosome- they serve as the same function to carry genes, yet each one may hace differnt genes which leads to different function.
Total lung capacity define
it is the total amount of air the lungs can hold including all of the residual air
Total lung capacity define
it is the total amount of air the lungs can hold including all of the residual air
ADH only acts where?
the collecting duct
Aldosterone acts where?
it acts on the distal convoluted tubule
Hypothalamus has a LARGE range of functions
- including controllilng temperature, hunger/ thurst and fatigue
- it also is the command center for the anterior pitutary –> which regulates thryiod hormones ( and that influnces metabolism by increasing/decreasing it)
During inhalation, the throaic cavity increases therefore the pressure within the cavity decreases ( yeilding a negative pressure phenomenon)
DOES THE diaphragm contract or relax during inhalation?
it contracts
During exhalation, the thoraic cavity decreases therefore the pressure increases causing the air to leave the lungs.
DOes the diapharmn contract or relax during inhalation?
It relaxes
The embryo becomes a fetus when??
at 9 weeks
At what stage of the menstural cycle is the estrogen levels lowest?
during the menstruation
at what stage of the menstrual cycle is the estrogen the highest
the LH surge to cause ovulation.
Active immunity - occurs when the antibody are creased in response to an antigen
Think Vaccination - the dead virus in injected into the body to create antibodies again the virus ( THUS CALLED ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY) - because the vaccine was dead adn not an active bacterial
define the correct path of blood in the human body?
superior/inferior vena cava -> right atrium –> left atrium –> Lungs –> left atria –> left ventricle -> BODY
what is the electrical path of the heart?
SA node –> AV node –> bundle of HIS –> purkinjee fibers
Can water soluble vitamins be filtered into the bowman’s capsule?
YES it can. Only essential things cannot such as
- leukocyte ( immune system )
- plasma protien ( osmotic pressure)
- Polysaccaride - ( glucose supply )
Yellow bone marrow is useful for what?
it is yelow because it is high in fat cells that serve as energy storage site
T8 = cytotoxic cell ( killer cells) use MH1
kills cells that are infected with the virus
T8 = cytotoxic cell ( killer cells) use MH1
kills cells that are infected with the virus
define the stages of Aerobic respiration?
Glycolysis+Kreb cycle+ Electric transport chain
Anerobic respiration has what stages
Just glycolysis
What mucles are myogenic in the body?
Smooth and cardiac musle are myogenic and can be moldulated by the autonomic NS ( involuntary and no need to activate)
Skeletal muscle requires an impulse from teh neuromuscular junction
Directional Selection define
when extreme phenotype is favored over other
Transformation
when the cell takes of DNA from its enviroment
Gel electrophoresis does what?
it seperates piece of protiens by their size
What is the energy obtained from :
- GLycolysis
- Kreb
Net
Glycolysis = 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose
kreb = 6 NADH , 2 GTP, 2 FADH2 = 34 ATP
Net 36-38 ATp
What is the energy obtained from :
- GLycolysis
- Kreb
Net
Glycolysis = 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose
kreb = 6 NADH , 2 GTP, 2 FADH2 = 34 ATP
Net 36-38 ATp
ADP + P –> ATP
ATP stores energy to be used for another time. This process is exogonic or endogonic?
ENDOGONIC
this is why. - the energy from the protons moving down the electrochemical gradient is used and placed in the bonds of ADP + P –> ATP and all of the eneregy is harnased in the Bonds.
NAD+ ———> NADH
oxi reduced
the exchange of the hydride ( H-) wil contribute to as an electron
If there is a mutation in the gene’s operon, then the gene transciption will be affected .
If there is a mutation in the codiing part of the gene - unlikely to affect the actual transciption - it just makes a crapppy product.
The operon has the following
regular – Promotor - Operator - Structural gene
operator is where the the regulator binds
Ribosome is made of what?
rRNA and protiens
Reverse Transctiptase does what?
Takes RNA template and makes it into cDNA
- ## there is no exonuclease activity - which means more error prone
Reverse Transctiptase does what?
Takes RNA template and makes it into cDNA
- ## there is no exonuclease activity - which means more error prone
What are all the check points in teh cell cycle and their functions?
G1/S - prevents replication is the chromosomes if serverely damanged DNA therfore halting the cell cycle before DNA synthesis
S/G2 - has the DNA been synthesized correctly?
G2/M - is the cell big enough to split?
Define Transition mutation and Transverion mutation
A =T
G triple bond C
If Purine purine OR Pymidine pyrimidine ( transition mutation
If purine Pymrimine ( Transveration mutation ) - when paired incorrectly than its normal partner
Aromatic structures = has electrons delocatized but
does not necessarily contribute to the nonpolarit
symport/antiport are types of what type of transport?
secondary active transport
osteoclast = break down bone
mmeumonic : catastrophe
During menopause which hormones decreases?
- protestin,
- estrogen
- inhibin
NOT FSH
During menopause which hormones decreases?
- protestin,
- estrogen
- inhibin
NOT FSH
cytokine are interferon, interleukin, and growth factors that are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells ( it acts like hormone - it uses signal pathway)
often act without circulating through the entire blood system. - they typipically work as local hormones. This makes sense because cykonines would like to have specific jobs to get done. If the cytokines under go the entire circulation, the whole body will react to a single message and that is not effeicent is that now? :0
any body surface that can be in contact with the enviroment is lined with epithelial cells. name some in the BODY!
- Mouth
- GI tract ( starts with mouth -> anus) - both have exposure to the outside world
( technically THe GI track is outside the body) - Urethra - you PEEE
The largest cross section area of all vessels is foudn where?
in the capillaries
cardiac output ( CO) = Stroke Volume ( SV) x Heart rate ( HR)
if you want to decrease the SV you can increase the HR
Clonal selection
is the process by which certain immature lymphocytes are selected for maturation.
clonoal selection allows only those lymphocyes that demonstrate the ability to reconize foreign antigens and avoid responding to self antigens to mature, those that violate either these conditions are destroyed.
Cell-mediated immunity ( T cells ) work against infected cells, cancerous cells, skin grafts and tissue implants.
infected cell - cytotixic cell T8
helper T cell - T 4 –> stimulate the B cells ( humoral immunity )
Colonal selection - is important to determine only certain types of cells can mature and proliferate.
Positive selection -
- cells must show they are capaable of recongizing antigens in the conext o host MHC molecule sand those that can notundergo apoptosis
negative selection - cells that are inappropriately actied by host cells in the absense of infection –> leads to autoimmune diseases
- cell that are unable to recognize antigens presented by MHC molecules , cell that respond too strongly to MHC molecules with self antigen undergo apoptosis
Collectively, positive and negative selection allow for the survival of those B and T cells that are able to distingiush between self and nonself- antigens.
T cell undergo colonal selection in Thymus
B cells undergo colonal selection in the bone marrow
In terms of effective concentrations ( EC ), if there is a lower concentration that can get the job done as much as the high concentration, that means the lower concentration is more effective.
This is in reference to the half minimal effective concentration ( EC50)
Restriction enzymes that are produced in bacteria that recognize and cut specific squences of viral DNA, protecting the bacertium from the virus.
They are in prokaryotes - which means it is in the cytosol.
restriction enzymes make sticky ends that are palindromic
but each restriction enxyme makes different palindromic seqences.
CO= HR x SV
Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume
G protien coupled receptors ( GPCR ) - has 2 transmembrane domains
ligand = small peptides ( hormones typically )
what is the size order of cells? virus, bacteria and eukaryptic cells
virus is the smallest of the 3 organisms.
Eu>bac>virus
bacteria is 100 times larger than virus
eu is 1000 times larger than virus and 10x than bacteria.
what is the size order of cells? virus, bacteria and eukaryptic cells
virus is the smallest of the 3 organisms.
Eu>bac>virus
bacteria is 100 times larger than virus
eu is 1000 times larger than virus and 10x than bacteria.
messenger RNA, mRNA, codes for the order of amino acids within a peptide chain
mRNA = code for a specific sqeuence of amino acids
Bacteria does have Electron Transport Chain in order to synthesize ATP.
Aerobic bacteria uses Oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor
Anerobic bacteria use other substates as their final electron acceptor.
Bacteria does have Electron Transport Chain in order to synthesize ATP.
Aerobic bacteria uses Oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor
Anerobic bacteria use other substates as their final electron acceptor.
NADH is a type of nucleic acid
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
NADH is a type of nucleic acid
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
the Gene code which codes for enzymes - enzymes catalyze reactions,
synthesis of non-protien molecules often requires enzymes
There are 2 types of ACH receptors . name and define thewm
nicotinic = ionotropic receptors - uses []gradient muscarinic = G protien - slower.
There are 2 types of ACH receptors . name and define thewm
nicotinic = ionotropic receptors - uses []gradient ( fast) muscarinic = G protien - slower.
There are 2 types of ACH receptors . name and define thewm
nicotinic = ionotropic receptors - uses []gradient ( fast) muscarinic = G protien - slower.
degree of intracellular calcium is correlated with how much a cardiac cell will contract and the degree of the cell contraction coorelates with intracellular calcium
higher intracellular calium leads to increased contraction and thus increased cellular shortening.
degree of intracellular calcium is correlated with how much a cardiac cell will contract and the degree of the cell contraction coorelates with intracellular calcium
higher intracellular calium leads to increased contraction and thus increased cellular shortening.
is calcium high intracellularly or extracelluar?
INTRACELLULAR
transciption factors define :
BIND to DNA and subsqentyly recuit RNA polymerase.
in terms of the stablizing base pair stacking in the DNA, this is due to the van der walls interactions due to the the turning of the helix brings the base pairs closer to one antother.
there only exists HB with completeplementary base pairs. not base pairs top and bottom.
After DNA replication, mutations occur and distort the DNA> how can you fix it?
you can do nucleotide excision repair - most capatble of removing large patches of DNA that result in the helix disortion aka thymine Dimers can occur by the sun.
Proofreading occurs when?
it is conduected by DNA polymerase during th DNA replication process
Base excions repair occurs when?
it repairs demanged DNA that DOES NOT affect the helix
mismatch repair
corrects improper pairing of the normal base pairs - which was not caught by the proofreading.
Nucelotide excision repair -
occurs after DNA is replicated. it has the ability to remove large patches of DNA that results in helix distortion. aka thymine dimers can occur.
genomic libraries have both coding and noncoding parts of DNA in its library. therefore it is not good to make protiens becaue it still has its introns and exons.
on the other hand, cDNA - aka expression libaries - contain smaller gragments of DNA, and only include exons of genes expressed by the sample tissue. they can be used to make recombinant protiens and for gene therapy.
genomic libraries have both coding and noncoding parts of DNA in its library. therefore it is not good to make protiens becaue it still has its introns and exons.
on the other hand, cDNA - aka expression libaries - contain smaller gragments of DNA, and only include exons of genes expressed by the sample tissue. they can be used to make recombinant protiens and for gene therapy.
Define Ubquination:
During Ubquination, a aprotien is inactivevd by attaching ubquitin to it. Ubquitin is a small molecule. It acts like a tag that signals the protien transport machinery to ferry the protirn to a proteosome for degration.
Define Ubquination:
During Ubquination, a aprotien is inactivevd by attaching ubquitin to it. Ubquitin is a small molecule. It acts like a tag that signals the protien transport machinery to ferry the protirn to a proteosome for degration.
endosome - part of the eukarytoic cells such that it comes here before it goes to lysysome
endosomes provide an environment for material to be sorted before it reaches the degradative lysosom
endosome - part of the eukarytoic cells such that it comes here before it goes to lysysome
endosomes provide an environment for material to be sorted before it reaches the degradative lysosom
