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Biology 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Where are the following on the kidney?

  • nephron
  • cortex
  • medulla
  • renal pelvis
  • ureter
A
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2
Q

Where are the glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, descending loop of henle, ascending loop of henle, juxtaglomerular apparatus, distal convoluted tubule, & collecting duct

A
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3
Q

Describe interplay b/t: juxtaglomerular apparatus, renin-angiotensis pathway, aldosterone, and the distal convoluted tubules of the kidney

A
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4
Q

Provide definitions for: Tidal volume, reserve volume, residual volume, & vital capacity

A
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5
Q

Draw a Hb binding curve. Show the shape of the curve for both O2 binding and CO binding.

Demonstrate the effect of [CO2], [H+], [BPG], and temp on the O2 binding curve

A
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6
Q

Draw a heart and correctly label the:

superior and inferior vena cava, right atrium, left atrium, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, left ventricle, & aorta

A
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7
Q

Where in the body are the following glands?

  • Pituitary (Anterior & Posterior)
  • parathyroid
  • pancreas
  • thyroid
  • Adrenal glads (cortex & medulla)
  • thyroid
A
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8
Q

What regulates the anterior & posterior pituitary glands?

A

The hypothalamus

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9
Q

What does the adrenal gland look like? Where is the cortex & where is the medulla?

A
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10
Q

Tidal Volume

A
  • volume of air that enters and exits the lungs during an average, unforced respiration
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11
Q

Residual Volume

A
  • amount of air left in the lungs after a FORCED, maximal exhalation
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12
Q

Respiratory:

  • Inspiratory & Expiratory residual volume

(IRV & ERV)

A
  • Volume of additional air that can be exhaled or inhaled

after a NORMAL, UNFORCED expiration or inhalation

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13
Q

vital capacity

A
  • total volume of air the lungs can hold at maximum inflation, minus the residual volume (RV)
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14
Q

Where does Systemic circulation flow?

A
  • from left ventricle
  • through arteries,
  • arterioles,
  • capillaries,
  • venules,
  • veins,
  • vena cava, and back to the
  • right atrium
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15
Q

Where does PULMONARY circulation flow?

(5 steps)

A

RIGHT ventricle ⇒ pulmonary arteries⇒

LUNGS

⇒pulmonary veins ⇒LEFT atrium

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16
Q

What makes up hemoglobin?

A
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17
Q

Where in the body are the thyroid and parathyroid glands?

A
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18
Q

Where are cross-sectional area cand flow rate greatest, respectively, in the circulatory system?

A
  • cross-sectional area greatest in capillaries
  • Velocity greatest at aorta
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19
Q

the descending loop of henle

A
  • travels into the very hypertonic medulla.
  • This section of nephron is impermeable to salts, but VERY permeable to water.
  • Water flows out of filtrate and into the medulla, concentrating the urine
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20
Q

Ascending loop of henle

A
  • carries filtrate out of the medulla and back into the cortex
    • this portion of loop is impermeable to water and actively transports ions out of the filtrate and into the medulla.
  • this “dumping” of salts into the medulla is the reason why it’s so hypertonic.
  • top of ascending loop is less concentrated due to removal of the salt ions
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21
Q

Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

A
  • section of nephron b/t top of ascending loop of henle & collecting duct
  • regulates calcium, sodium, & Hydrogen []s
  • MCAT wants you to focus on its SODIUM REABSORPTION
    • (as regulated by aldosterone)
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22
Q

Juxtaglomerular apparatus

A
  • detects decreased blood pressure in the afferent arteriole-secretes renin
  • eventually leads to increase blood volume & blood pressure
    • this increased blood pressure provides (-) feedback on the juxtaglomerular apparatus
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23
Q

Kidney: Describe the Collecting duct

A
  • a # of DCTs from several different nephrons dump into a shared collecting duct

CD carries filtrate

  • thru medulla toward the renal pelvis*
  • CD becomes very WATER PERMEABLE in presence of ADH from posterior pituitary
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24
Q

Respiratory Volumes & Capacities:

  • Describe Tidal Volume (TV)
A
  • volume of air that enters and exits the lungs during an average, UNFORCED respiration
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25
Q

Respiratory: Inspiratory & expiratory reserve volume (IRV & ERV)

A
  • volume of additional air that can be exhaled or inhaled after a normal, unforced expiration or inhalation
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26
Q

Respiratory:

Residual volume (RV)

A
  • the amount of air left in the lungs after a FORCED, maximal exhalation
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27
Q

Respiratory:

vital capacity (VC)

A
  • total volume of air the lungs can hold at maximum inflation
    • minus the residual volume (RV)
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28
Q

Function of excretory system is to…(3)

A
  • excrete liquid & solute waste
    • (like water, excess salts, nitrogenous wastes, etc)
  • Maintains:
    • pH
    • osmolarity
    • BP
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29
Q
  • Aldosterone acts on ___ ___, causing (increase/decrease) in __ uptake-also causes ___ of __ in/out of the ___ ___ via what?
A
  • Acts on distal tubule
    • causing an INCREASE of Na+ uptake.
  • Causes reabsorption of Na+ OUT of the collecting duct
    • via insertion of Na+ and K+ channels and Na+/K+ ATPases in cells that line the collecting duct
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30
Q

What is the net effect of Aldosterone?

  • Where is Aldosterone produced?
A

INCREASES:

  1. water retention
  2. BP

Comes from the ADRENAL CORTEX

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31
Q

___ makes the collecting duct permeable to ___?If theres none of it, what’s the result?

A
  • ADH makes the collecting duct permeable to water.
  • No ADH= collecting duct impermeable to water
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32
Q
  • Since the collecting duct passes through the highly concentrated ___,
    • as soon as membrane becomes permeable to water (due to what hormone?)

what happens?

A
  • CD passes through highly []ed MEDULLA

as soon as ADH reaches CD:

  • theres a large flow of water OUT of the filtrate
    • results in CONCENTRATING of the urine (increased water retention)
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33
Q

Net effect of ADH=? 2 things

A

water retention and increase BP

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34
Q

Primary function of the Respiratory system is? where does this occur and how does air get there?

A
  • GAS EXCHANGE!
  • occurs in Alveoli
  • inhalation & exhalation deliver air to alveoli
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35
Q

O2 diffues ___ its [] gradient into what?

A

DOWN its [] gradient into the blood

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36
Q

CO2 diffuses ___ its [] gradient ___ of what and into what?

A

DOWN its [] gradient, OUT of blood and back into lungs

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37
Q

Respiratory system: Path of air

A
  • Mouth
  • Nose
  • pharynx
  • larynx
  • trachea
  • bronchi
  • bronchiloes
  • alveoli
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38
Q

Diaphragm: remember 2 things

A
  1. it moves DOWN when it is flexed and UP when relaxed
  2. it moves DOWN during inhalation and UP during exhalation
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39
Q

Hemoglobin (Hb) is made up of what? What makes up that thing?

A
  • made of 4 protein chains
    • (2 alpha & 2 ß subunits)
  • each alpha and ß protein has a Fe-containing “heme” group at its center
  • Each heme can hold ONE O2 molecul
    • THUS, 100% saturation of Hb molecule can hold 8 oxygen atoms
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40
Q

100% saturated Hb can hold (#) ___ molecules

A

8 oxygen molecules

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41
Q

Equation for how CO2 is carried in the blood:

A

CO2+H2O⇒HCO3- + H+

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42
Q

The function of the cardiovascular system is…? (2)

A
  • Deliver O2 & nutrients to the cells & tissues
  • pick up CO2 & waste products and deliver them to lungs & kidneys
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43
Q

Tricuspid valve leads to? Bicuspid valve leads to? (Travel Bolivia!)

A
  • Tricuspid leads to Right Ventricle (Pulmonary Valve)
  • Bicuspid leads to Left Ventricle (Aortic Valve)
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44
Q

Cardiovascular System: Systemic Circulation (hint: there’s a path!)

A
  • blood flows from LEFT ventricle,
  • through arteries,
  • arterioles,
  • capillaries,
  • venules,
  • veins,
  • vena cava, and
  • back to RIGHT atrium
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45
Q

Arteries vs Veins: Which one leaves, which returns to the heart?

A
  • Arteries leave (away from heart)
  • veins return (towards heart)
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46
Q

Sympathetic nervous activity ___es HR & BP

A

increases

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47
Q

Parasympathetic nervous activity ___es HR & BP

A

decreases

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48
Q

Blood Vessels: Pathway

A
  • Arteries
  • Arterioles
  • Capillaries
  • Venules
  • Veins
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49
Q

Define arteries

A
  • muscular, THICK-walled vessels that PUSH blood via rhythmic contraction
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50
Q

define veins

A
  • THIN walled vessels with little to no musculature that rely on a VALVE system to move blood back to heart
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51
Q

On arterial side of capillary bed, HYDROSTATIC (“water”+non+moving”) PRESSURE is at its (max/min?)

  • At the same time, ___ of blood is _______ than than of interstitial fluid, creating what?
A

at its MAX!

  • osmolarity of blood is GREATER than that of interstitial fluid
    • creates an osmotic pressure

that DRIVES FLUID INTO THE CAPILLARY

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52
Q

Blood is what kind of tissue?

A

connective

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53
Q

What is the function of blood?

A
  • -transport nutrients, gases, waste products & hormones to and from cells
  • regulate the extracellular environment
  • protect body from foreign bodies (ie antigens)
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54
Q

What is blood made of? 6 things

A
  1. WBC’s (“leukocytes”)
  2. RBS’s (“erythrocytes”)
  3. antibodies (“immunoglobulins”)
  4. clotting factors (like fibrinogen)
  5. transport proteins (like albumin)
  6. platelets
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55
Q

Blood vessels: Q=AV explains inverse relationship b/t what?

A

velocity and cross-sectional area

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56
Q

Erythrocytes=?

A

-sacks of Hemoglobin, and not much else

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57
Q

What’s an interesting fact about erythrocytes (RBCs)?

A

They start out with a nucleus & organelles, but the disappear as cell matures

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58
Q

Leukocytes: (2)

A
  • No hemoglobin
  • Normal cells with ALL their organelles involved in the immune system
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59
Q
  • Granulocytes are __,__, and__.
  • These cells live for…?
  • “Grandma NEB Doesnt live long”
A
  • neutrophils
  • eosinophils
  • basophils
  • ​these cells live for hours to days
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60
Q
  • Agranulocytes (2 examples)
  • how long do these cells last for?
A
  • -monocytes (which become macrophages)
  • lymphocytes
  • ​live for months to years
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61
Q
  • Define platelets.
  • When are they sticky and not sticky?
A
  • Membrane bound drops of cytoplasm
    • are sticky when exposed to injured epithelium
  • are NOT sticky when exposed to healthy epithelium
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62
Q

What happens when platelets encounter injured epithelium?

A
  • They release chemicals that activate OTHER platelets & clotting factors
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63
Q

What are platelets derived from?

A

Megakaryocytes in the bone marrow

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64
Q

All blood cells develop from ___ ___ (aka “undifferentiated cells”) in the bone marrow–a process called ___.

A
  • stem cells
  • hematopoesis
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65
Q

Four phenotypes of bloodwhat is universal acceptor? Universal donor?

A
  • A,B, AB, O
  • universal acceptor=AB
  • universal donor=O
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66
Q

Genetically, blood type is an example of what?

A
  • co-dominance
    • (both alleles expressed equally in heterozygote)
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67
Q

For blood types, “A” and “B” indicate what?

A
  • ANTIGENS that are present on that person’s blood cell membranes
  • A=A only
  • B=B only
  • AB=Both A and B
  • O=NEITHER A nor B
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68
Q

What is the function of the lymphatic system? (3)

A
  • -gather excess interstitial fluid & return it to the blood
  • remove from interstitial fluid proteins & other molecules TOO BIG to be taken up by capillaries
  • monitor blood & lymph for infections
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69
Q

Lymph nodes are filled with ___, which do what?

A
  • filled with lymphocytes
    • which monitor the blood for foreign antigens & fight infections
70
Q

What do Lymph vessels look like? How do they work to move things around?

A
  • have one-way VALVES used to move the lymph
  • Single cells overlap slightly,
    • creating a trap door that lets things IN, but not OUT
71
Q

The ENTIRE lymph system drains into what 2 main vessels?

  • What do both of these vessels do?
A
  1. RIGHT LYMPHATIC
  2. THORACIC DUCT
  • ​Both dump back into BLOOD STREAM
    • by merging w/ large veins in lower portion of the neck area
72
Q

What 5 things comprise the “NERVOUS SYSTEM?”

A
  1. Brain (CNS)
  2. Spinal cord (CNS)
  3. PERIPHERAL nerves (aka “PNS”)
  4. Nerve SUPPORT cells
    • astrocytes
    • schwann cells
    • ependymal cells
  5. SENSORY organs
    • eyes
    • ears
73
Q

What is a “neuron?”

A

a specialized cell that can carry an electrochemical signal (called an “action potential”)

74
Q

Dendrites are…

A
  • finger-like projections from the cell body
    • receive signal information from an upstream neuron, with which it forms a SYNAPSE
75
Q

How do dendrites receive signal information from upstream neurons?

A
  • Signal binds to a neurotransmitter on the post-synaptic membrane (aka the dendrite portion of the membrane)
76
Q

Nervous system:

  • describe the neuron cell
  • aka the “STOMA”*
A

is the main part of the neuron where the nucleus is located

77
Q

Neuron:

  • describe the AXON HILLOCK
    • what does it have a high [] of?
    • What effect does this have on the region?
A
  • Area where the axon joins the cell body
  • has a very high [] of VGNa+ channels, which make it:
    • 1) sensitive to action potentials
    • 2) capable of regenerating a strong AP for transmission down the axon
78
Q

Neuron:

  • Describe the TERMINAL BUTTON
    • ​aka the AXON TERMINAL
A

is a branch at the end of the axon that synapses with:

  • the dendrite of the next neuron down the line, OR
  • the effector
79
Q

Neuron:describe the axon

A

is the long, narrow, tube-like stretch b/t the cell body and the terminal button

80
Q

Neuron:

  • Describe Schwann cells
  • What do they have high levels of?
  • What do they wrap themselves around?
    • What’s it called once it’s done wrapping?
A
  • are along the axon*
  • are specialized neural SUPPORT cells.*
  • have high levels of FAT
  • wrap themselves around the axon multiple times
  • wrapping creates a “myelin sheath,” which insulates the axon
81
Q

Neuron:what are the nodes of ranvier?what significance do they have?

A
  • small gaps b/t schwann cells
  • signals are able to “jump” from one node to another, without progressing along the entire length of the axon
    • this dramatically increases transmission SPEED!
82
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP:

  • What is an ACTION POTENTIAL?
  • What happens (in general) once it is made?
A

a dramatic ∆ in resting elec. potential across membrane of a nerve cell

  • once made, it will move along cell membrane to neighboring portions of the neurons
    • as it does, the areas where AP originated gradually return to resting potential (-70mV)
83
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP: Define & quantify “resting potential”

A
  • is the voltage across the membrane when an AP is NOT present
  • resting potential= -70mV
84
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP: What does a Na+/K+ pump do?

A

(is an ATP pump) that actively transports 3 Na+ ions OUT of the cell & 2 K+ ions IN

85
Q

What is the net effect of the Na+ /K+ pump during propagation of an AP?

A

since there’s more Na+ sent OUT of the cell than K+ ions brought in, there is a more (+) charge outside of the cell, and a progressively more (-) charge inside

86
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP: describe voltage-gated Na+ channelswhat happens when its open?

A
  • integral proteins that OPEN UP in response to a ∆ in resting potential across the membrane
  • when open, Na+ flows rapidly back INTO the cell
87
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP: describe depolarization. what causes it?

A
  • opening of VGNa+ channels causes a sudden spike in membrane potential
    • usually from -70mV to ~+40mV
88
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP:

  • Define THRESHOLD POTENTIAL
    • Value= __mV
    • What happens if this value is exceeded?
    • What about if that value isn’t quite reached?
A
  • is the MINIMUM STIMULUS NEEDED*
  • to INITIATE an AP*
  • usually +55mV

If stimulus EXCEEDS 55mV:

  • AP follows.

If stimulus FAILS TO REACH +55mV:

  • mem pot. returns to -70mV (Resting potential)
89
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP:

  • What are VG K+ channels?
    • What’s a key difference b/t these and VGNa+** channels?
    • What happens as a result of this difference?
A
  • integral proteins that respond to*
  • a ∆ in membrane potential*

Differ from VGNa+ channels because:

  • have a MUCH higher threshold for responding than do VGNa+ channels
    • b/c this is the case, VGK+ channels will only react following a VERY LARGE ∆ in membrane potential that is a result of depolarization

This is what causes dip to ~90mV when repolarizing, because VGK+ channels are SLOWER to respond

90
Q

At around MAX depolarization of an AP, what happens with regards to ion channels?

A
  • Na+ channels begin to close
  • K+ channels begin to open
91
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP:

  • Describe Repolarization
    • ​What happens as a result of it?
    • Quantify“repolarization”
A
  • Because there’s more K+ ions inside the cell (due to Na+ K+ pump), opening of K+ channels cause K+ ions to flow OUT of the cell
  • this causes sudden DECREASE in membrane potential, from +40mV to -70mV*
92
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP:

  • Describe Hyperpolarization
    • ​Quantify this stage
A
  • because K+ channels are SLOW TO CLOSE as membrane potential approaches -70mV:
  • membrane potential actually dips to -90mV before going back up to -70mV*
93
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP:

  • Describe the ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD
    • ​When does it occur?
    • Why does it occur at this time?
A

NO action potential can be created,

no MATTER how much stimulus!

  • Occurs during progression of AP
    • which involves depolarization of membrane
  • 2nd stimulus can’t be initiated until membrane gets repolarized

(no sexy time right after blowing your load–no matter HOW much the “stimulus”)

94
Q

Creation & Propagation of an AP:

  • Describe RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD
    • what’s the NAME of the state the membrane is in DURING the Relative Refractory Period?
    • Why does the RRP need the thing that it needs?
A

here, another AP CAN be stimulated–

but stimulus needs to be SUPER HIGH!

State of membrane during this period:

  • time frame when membrane is hyperpolarized

Needs a larger stimulus

b/c its a greater jump from -90 ⇒+55

than from -70 ⇒ +55

(30 minutes after sexy time, you COULD have sex again, if the “stimulus” were sufficient)

95
Q

What are the 2 types of synapse?

A

electrical and chemical

96
Q

What is, by FAR, the slowest part of signal transduction?

A

Transmission across the synapse

97
Q

Describe “ELECTRICAL Synapses”

Where are the only 5 places they happen?

A

are GAP JUNCTIONS b/t cells that

allow electrical signals to pass very quickly

from cell to cell

  • only happen in:
    1. retina
    2. smooth muscle
    3. cardiac muscle
    4. Brain (CNS)
    5. Spinal Cord (CNS)
98
Q

What’s the “traditional” kind of synapse that we all think about?

A

Chemical synapses

99
Q

Describe chemical synapses

A
  • are the small gaps b/t the terminal button and:
    • dendrite of a subsequent neuron
    • membrane or a muscle or other target (the “effector”)
100
Q
  • Describe (in general) how a signal is transmitted from:
    • the terminal button
    • across the synaptic cleft, and
    • to the next neuron in line (or to the effector , whichever)
A

AP arrives at post-synaptic cleft,

  • triggers voltage gated Ca2+ channels to OPEN
  • calcium flows into the terminal button*

presence of Ca2+ initiates a cascade!

neurotransmitter bundles FUSE with presynaptic membrane

  • then dump their contents into the synaptic cleft
    • these neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the gap, and
  • BIND to protein receptors on post-synaptic membrane
    • binding of protein and neurotransmitter molecules opens Na+ channels

Na+ flows INTO cell

  • if enough Na+ gets in, voltage will reach threshold
    • and AP will be generated!
101
Q

Synapses:How do you stop signal transduction?

A

specialized enzymes in synaptic cleft must BREAK DOWN the neurotransmitter to interrupt its action

102
Q
  • the POST-synaptic membrane will be CONTINUOUSLY STIMULATED as long as…..?
A

as long as:

neurotransmitter is present

103
Q

What is the most common enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters?

A

Acetylcholinesterase (ACh)

104
Q
  • what is an acetylcholinesterase (ACh) “agonist”? How about an “antagonist?”
    • What do each do wrt stimulation of neurons?
A

Agonist=ACTIVATES ACh

  • leads to break down of neurotransmitters
    • decreased stimulation of neurons

Antagonist= INHIBITS ACh

  • increased stimulation of neurons
  • “an AGonist AGtivates”*
105
Q

What do Neural SUPPORT CELLS do?

  • Are they neurons?
  • give 3 examples

they are an example of ___ tissue!

A
  • they ARENT neurons*
  • but rather cells in the nervous system that provide SUPPORT to neurons*
  • Ex:
    • Schwann cells
      • (oligodendrocytes, aka “GLIAL CELLS” in CNS)
    • Ependymal cells
      • (cells lining the cerebrospinal fluid cavities),
    • Astrocytes
      • (Structural support cell

are an example of NERVOUS tissue!

106
Q

Name the 3 neuron functions

HINT: _____ neurons, _____ neurons, & _____ neurons

A
  1. INTERneurons,
  2. Motor (efferent) neurons,
  3. Sensory (afferent) neurons

“S.A.M.E”

107
Q

Describe SENSORY (AFFERENT) neurons

  • What are they activated by?
  • Sensory neurons send ______s to other elements of the _____ _____,
    • ​Ultimately conveying SENSORY INFORMATION to the _____ or the _____ _____
A
  • are nerve cells that transmit sensory information (sight, sound, feeling, etc.)
  • They are activated by sensory input
  • send projections to other elements of the nervous system
  • ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain or spinal cord.
108
Q

describe motor (efferent) neurons

A

carry signals to a muscle or gland, in response to a stimulus

109
Q

describe interneurons (2 functions and example/s)

A
  • CONNECT motor (efferent) and sensory (afferent) neurons
  • transfer and process signals
  • EX: the brain and 90% of all other neurons are interneurons
110
Q

The Nervous System is divided into what 2 categories?

A

Central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS)

111
Q

The CNS includes?

A
  1. brain
  2. spinal chord

INTERNEURONS ONLY!!!!!

112
Q

The PNS is divided into what 2 subcategories?

A

somatic & autonomic

113
Q

PNS: Somatic nervous system -describe (3)

A
  • is voluntary
  • innervates skeletal muscle
  • has sensory & motor subdivisions
114
Q

PNS: Autonomic nervous system-describe

A
  • INvoluntary
  • innervates:
    • cardiac muscle
    • smooth muscle
    • glands
  • Like somatic, it has sensory & motor subdivisions
115
Q

Parasympathetic NS:-describe-Where are cells located? -What neurotransmitters does it use, and where?

A
  • “Rest & digest”
  • cell bodies located very close (or inside!) effector
  • Neurotransmitters:
    • ACh ONLY
      • at ganglia & effector
116
Q

Sympathetic NS-describe-where are the cells located? -What kind of neurotransmitters does it use, and where?

A
  • “Fight or flight”
  • Cell bodies located FAR from effectors
  • Neurotransmitters:
    • uses Norepinephrine mostly (ACh too)
      • at ganglia & effector
117
Q

What does the Endocrine System include?

A

“endocrine glands,” and the fluids & ducts into which they are released

118
Q

EXOcrine glands release what? into where?

A
  • release enzymes or other liquids into external environment
  • Ex:
    • like digestive tract, nostrils, & butt-holes
119
Q

ENDOcrine glands release what? into what?

A

release hormones into the internal fluids of the body (blood or lymph)

120
Q

Name the 3 kinds of Endocrine hormones

A
  1. peptides
  2. steroids
  3. tyrosines
121
Q

Mnemonic for anterior pituitary hormones: FLAT PG (flat pig)

A
  • FSH
  • LH
  • ACTH
  • TSH
  • Prolactin
  • GH
122
Q

Which hormones come from:Posterior pituitary

A
  1. ADH
  2. Oxytocin
123
Q

Which hormone(s) come from:Parathyroid

A

PTH (parathyroid hormone)

124
Q

Which hormone(s) come from:Pancreas

A
  1. Glucagon
  2. Insulin
125
Q

Which PEPTIDE hormone(s) come from:Thyroid

A

Calcitonin

126
Q

Which hormone(s) come from:Embryo/Placenta

A

hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)

127
Q

Which hormone(s) come from:Adrenal cortex

A
  1. cortisol
  2. aldosterone
128
Q

Which hormone(s) come from:Gonads

A
  1. estrogen
  2. progesterone
  3. testosterone
129
Q

Which TYROSINE hormone(s) come from:Thyroid

both of which are?

A
  1. T3
  2. T4

both are lipid-soluble

130
Q

Which hormone(s) come from:adrenal medullaboth of which are?

A
  1. epinephrine
  2. norepinephrine

both are water soluble

131
Q

Describe what happens when a hormone is transported to an effector

A
  • lipid-soluble hormones
    • require a protein carrier or a micelle/vesicle
    • peptides are water soluble
      • …so they dissolve in bloodstream
132
Q

Describe what happens when a hormone gets to its target effector(lipid-soluble vs water soluble)

A
  • lipid soluble act exclusively by binding on a receptor IN THE NUCLEUS & affecting transcription
  • peptide hormones act on a number of different cell locations
    • can’t go straight to nucleus
133
Q
  • Describe membrane permeability for:
    • lipid-soluble
    • water-soluble hormones

once they get to their target effector

A
  • lipid soluble
    • doesnt require a cell membrane receptor–
      • goes right thru the cell membrane
    • They DO still require a receptor when they act INSIDE the cell
  • Peptide hormones are hydrophilic
    • …so they need a cell membrane receptor
134
Q

Briefly describe what happens in a 2nd messenger system. Usually occurs via…?

A
  • usually occurs via a cascade.
  • one hormone activates another hormone, enzyme, or other signaling molecule
  • process repeats, with SIZE of rxn and # of molecules increasing with each step
135
Q

Hormones always act…?

A

..to return to homeostatic, or “normal” conditions

136
Q

Why is the thyroid a “special gland?”

A

because it secretes both a tyrosine derivative AND a peptide hormone

137
Q

Anterior & posterior pituitary glands are both REGULATED by hormones that come from where?

A

Hypothalamus

138
Q

Remember…all steroids are ___ derivatives

A

CHO(cholesterol)

139
Q

ACTH

A

stimulates adrenal cortex to release stress hormones called “glucocorticoids”

140
Q

LH

A
  • surge in LH causes:
    • ovulation
    • stimulates secretion of sex hormones:
      • estrogen
      • testosterone
141
Q

FSH

A
  • stimulates :
    • growth of follicle during menstrual cycle
    • production of sperm
142
Q

TSH

A

stimulates release of T3/T4 from thyroid

143
Q

hGH

A

stimulates growth throughout body

144
Q

Prolactin

A

stimulates milk production in breasts

145
Q

ADH

A
  • causes collecting duct of kidney to become highly permeable to water
    • leads to concentrating of the urine
146
Q

Oxytocin

A
  • stimulates:
    • contractions during childbirth
    • milk secretion during nursing
147
Q

Parathyroid hormone

A
  • increases blood calcium by:
    • stimulating proliferation of osteoclasts
    • uptake of Ca2+ in gut
    • reabsorption of Ca2+ in kidneys
148
Q

Insulin

A
  • stimulates uptake and storage of glucose from blood
149
Q

Glucagon

A
  • stimulates:
    • gluconeogenesis
    • release of glucose into the blood
150
Q

Calcitonin

A

decreases blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts

151
Q

hCG

A

prevents degeneration of corpeus luteum, maintaining pregnancy

152
Q

Aldosterone

A
  • increases Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion at distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
    • leads to net increase of salts in plasma
    • increasing osmotic potential
    • And, subsequently increases blood pressure
153
Q

Cortisol

A
  • stress hormone
  • increases gluconeogenesis in liver
    • and thus increases blood glucose levels
  • stimulates fat breakdown
154
Q

Testosterone

A
  • stimulates:
    • development of secondary sex characteristics
    • closing of epiphyseal plates
155
Q

Estrogen

A
  • stimulates:
    • female sex organs
  • causes:
    • LH surge in menstruation
156
Q

Progesterone

A

stimulates growth and maintenance of uterus during pregnancy

157
Q

T3/T4

A

increases basal metabolic rate, effecting metabolism

158
Q

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

A

causes response almost identical to sympathetic nervous system response

159
Q

4 special things to remember about neurons:

A
  1. They are stuck in G0 phase (cant divide)
  2. Depend ENTIRELY on glucose for energy
  3. DONT require insulin for glucose uptake
  4. Have very low glycogen stores & NO oxygen storage capacity
    • thus, neurons require high blood flow!
160
Q

Immune system (ie T- cells) of blood for a blood recipient will attack…?

A
  • any antigen that is “foreign” to it
  • If person is type B, their T cells will attack AB because A is foreign
161
Q

What do stess hormones, like _____s, do?

A
  • like glucocorticoids (which ACTH stimulates)
  • increase glugoneogenesis and fat metabolism
162
Q

diastolic pressure

A
  • occurs near the beginning of the cardiac cycle.
  • It is the minimum pressure in the arteries when the pumping chambers of the heart — ventricles — fill with blood.
163
Q

systolic pressure

A
  • Near the end of the cardiac cycle
  • systolic pressure, or peak pressure, occurs when the ventricles contract.
164
Q

What does Gram negative bacteria look like? What physical proterties does it have?

A
  • Stains pink
  • has a relatively thin cell wall
  • does not form endosomes
  • contain 2 cell membranes
    • one outside the cell
    • one inside the cell
165
Q

What does gram positive bacteria look like? What physical proterties does it have?

A
  • stains purple
  • very thick cell wall
  • DOES form endosomes
  • has a single cell membrane
166
Q

What is the main function of the PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)?

  • What does it relay communication between?
A
  • The main function of the PNS is TO CONNECT:
    • ​the central nervous system (CNS)
    • to the limbs and organs

…essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between the brain and the extremities

167
Q

oligodendrocytes, aka?

What part of the NS are they found in?

A

aka GLIAL CELLS

Found in the CNS

168
Q

Both ENDOCRINE AND NERVOUS responses pair with efferent/afferent sensory information?

Which is a faster response: Endocrine or Nervous?

A

Both endocrine and nervous responses pair with AFFERENT sensory information

NERVOUS reponses are faster

than endocrine responses

169
Q

NEURONS DO NOT require _____ to take up _____ as do nearly all other cells

A

Neurons DO NOT require INSULIN to take up GLUCOSE

as do nearly all other cells

170
Q

The SYMPATHETIC nervous system ______s the pupil and the PARASYMPATHETIC _______s it

A

SYMPATHETIC

  • dilates the pupil

PARASYMPATHETIC

  • constricts it

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