Biology 11 Final Objectives due 12/09/14 Flashcards
1
Q
What were the adaptations to land that plants had?
A
One of plants adaptations is structural, Light and carbon dioxide are mainly available in the air, while water and mineral nutrients are found in the soil. Plants are able to take advantage of these two environments by having both aerial leaf-bearing organs called shoots and subterranean organs called roots. Exchange of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the photosynthetic interior of a leaf occurs via stomata, the microscopic pores on a leaf’s surface. A waxy layer called the cuticle coats the leaves and other parts of the pant helping the plant body retain water. An important terrestrial adaptation of plants is lignin, a chemical that hardens cell walls. The terrestrial equipment of most plants includes two vascular tissues that are important for transport. The Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to leaves and the Phloem distributes sugars from the leaves to the roots and other parts of the plant.
Another adaptation is reproduction, plants must keep their offspring from drying out in the air. Plants reproduce their gametes in a protective structure called gametangium, it has a jacket of protective cells surrounding a moist chamber where gametes can develop without dehydrating. For most plants, sperm reach the eggs by travelling inside pollen grains, which are carried by wind or animals. The egg remains within the tissues of the mother plant and is fertilized there. The zygote develops into an embryo while still contained within the female parent and keeps the embryo from dehydrating.
2
Q
What are the unique characteristics of bryophyta?
A
Bryophyta are unique because they do not have vascular tissue to carry water from soil to aerial parts of the plant, also they need water in order to reproduce for the flagellated sperm to reach the eggs. It has separate female and male structures on the same plant. Gametophyte is the dominant generation with the sporophyte totally dependent on it for nutrition. The cells of a gametophyte are haploid—they have one set of chromosomes. The sporophyte is made up of two diploid cells with two chromosome sets. Gametophytes produce gametes and sporophytes produce spores. The gametophyte and sporophyte alternate generations that take turns producing eachother.
3
Q
What is unique about vascular plants?
A
The plant vascular system is made up of two networks of tubes, known as the xylem and phloem, which are the water and food conducting systems. These are not present in nonvascular plants, which is the major difference between the two. The xylem transports water up from the roots and circulates it to all the other sections of the plant’s body. The phloem transports food, nutrients, and photosynthetic material throughout the plant to keep it healthy and growing. The xylem is made up of dead hollow cells known as tracheids. The phloem, however, contains living cells, which are known as sieve-tube members. They have pores to allow the passage of molecules, but lack nuclei and other organs. Their companion cells, or the cells located next to them, function to keep them alive and healthy.
Vascular plants have lignin that helps support larger structures. There are two types of vascular plants, seedless and seed plants. Vascular seedless plants still need water to fertilize—the sperm still needs to swim to the egg. Plants with seeds have gametophytes that are dependent on sporophyte generation. The embryo is protected by the seed and the sperm is encased in pollen. The seeds are carried by wind or animals.
4
Q
What are the unique characteristics of the seedless plants? What evolutionary advantages does it have over moss and hornworts?
A
Seedless vascular plants are unique because they have no xylem or trachea and in the phloem companion cells are absent. Vascular seedless plants still need water to fertilize—the sperm still needs to swim to the egg. The two types are; Lycophytes—club mosses and Pterophytes—ferns. The fern has roots, rigid stems, fronds and reproduces with spores instead of seeds. The evolutionary advantage that it has over moss and hornworts is that unlike regular seed-bearing and flowering plants, seedless plants do not go through the regular reproduction cycle of flowering and fertilization. The advantage of reproduction in seedless plants is that they are not dependant on external factors such as pollination by insects.
5
Q
What is the evolutionary advantage of seeds and pollen?
A
Pollen and seeds allow genetic dispersal away from water. As plants adapted for terrestrial habitats the gametetophyte generation became smaller and self-contained. This eventually became pollen able to travel by wind or be carried by a pollinator. This allows plants to use sexual recombination over long distances without water to carry the pollen. Seeds have a coat for protection and endosperm (stored food) to support the plant embryo until conditions are right for germination.
6
Q
What is the gymnosperm and angiosperm life cycles?
A
7
Q
Be able to name the parts of the flower.
A
8
Q
Be able to describe the life cycles and the alternation of generations for each of the examples given in the powerpoint presentation.
A
Answer
9
Q
What are the characteristics that define animals?
A
Animals are 1. multicellular, 2. heterotrophic (An organism that cannot synthesize its own food and is dependent on complex organic substances for nutrition) eukaryotes that obtain nutrients by ingestion. 3. Lack a cell wall 4. Motile during some point of their life 5. Able to respond rapidly to external stimuli 6. Able to reproduce sexually
10
Q
What is the animal life cycle?
A
- Meiosis 2. Fertilization 3.Mitosis 4.Blastula 5.Early Gastrula 6.Later Gastrula 7. Larva
11
Q
Define zygote
A
Union of egg and sperm
12
Q
Define embryo
A
A developing stage of a multicellular organism.
In humans, the stage in the development of offspring from the first division of the zygote until body structures begin to appear, about 9th week of pregnancy.
13
Q
Define blastula
A
A hollow ball of cells in many species-which is an embryonic stage that marks the end of cleavage during animal development.
14
Q
Define gastrula
A
Invagination of the hollow ball to form the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm)
15
Q
Define ectoderm
A
Outer layer of cells that will eventually develop into the outer layer of cells in the animal (ie. skin or epidermis) and nervous system
16
Q
Define Endoderm
A
Inner layeer of cells becomes the innermost lining of the digestive system (and organs such as the liver, pancreas, and thyroid - in humans)
17
Q
Define Mesoderm
A
Forms the muscles and other internal organs (such as the heart and kidneys)
18
Q
Define Larva
A
Immature individual that looks different from the adult version of the animal.
19
Q
Define metamorphosis
A
Change in body form to become the adult (such as the transformation of a larva into an adult)
20
Q
Define symmetry
A
Radial Symmetry: parts radiate from the center, so any slice through the central axis divides into mirror images. Bilateral Symmetry: only one slice can divide left and right sides into mirror-images halves.
21
Q
Define coelom
A
A body cavity completely lined by tissue derived from mesoderm.
22
Q
Define pseudocoelom
A
A body cavity that is not completely lined by tissue derived from mesoderm.
23
Q
Be able to describe how animal complexity incresased with evolution.
A
Answer
24
Q
Define protostomes
A
invertebrate animal: an invertebrate animal, e.g. a mollusk or arthropod, in which the mouth forms directly from the blastopore
25
Define deutrostomes
any member of the phyla (Chordata, Hemichordata, Echinodermata, Chaetognatha) in which the anus appears first, developing at or near the blastopore, cleavage is radial and indeterminate, and the mesoderm and coelom form from outgrowths of the primitive gut.
26
Define polyp
Polyps are one of two forms of the cnidarians. Polyps may be sexual or asexual. The other body form is the medusa. When medusae mate, the result may be polyps, when polyps replicate, the result may be medusae.
27
Define medusa
In biology, a medusa (plural: medusae) is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shaped like an umbrella. The other main body-form is the polyp.
28
What are the characteristics of phylum porifera?
Answer
29
What advances do we see with cnidara?
Answer
30
What advances are seen with the platyhlminthes (flat worms)?
Answer
31
What advances are seen with Nematode (round worms)?
Answer
32
What advances are seen with Nematode (round worms)?
Answer
33
What are the characteristics of Mollusca?
Answer
Etymology:- From the Latin Molluscus meaning soft of body.
Characteristics of Mollusca:-
1)Bilaterally symmetrical.
2)Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.
3)Body without cavity.
4)Body possesses a through gut with mouth and anus.
5)Body monomeric and highly variable in form, may possess a dorsal or lateral shells of protein and calcareous spicules.
6)Has a nervous system with a circum-oesophagal ring , ganglia and paired nerve chords.
7)Has an open circulatory system with a heart and an aorta.
8)Has gaseous exchange organs called ctenidial gills.
9)Has a pair of kidneys.
10)Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic.
11)Feed a wide range of material.
12)Live in most environments.
34
Describe the three classes of Mollusca.
Answer
```
class gastropoda (snails)
class cephalopoda ( octopi and squid)
class bivalvia ( mussels and clams)
```
35
What are the characterisitics of Annelida?
Answer
Symmetry and Size. Annelids are all bilaterally symmetrical animals. ...
Coelom. Nearly all annelids have a fluid-filled cavity between the outer body wall and the gut, and this is referred to as a coelom (Figure 1). ...
Body wall. ...
Parapodia. ...
Nervous system. ...
Sense organs. ...
Circulation and respiratory structures. ...
Segmental organs.
36
What are the characteristics of Arthropoda and what are the three classes? What are the the characteristics of each of the three classes?
Answer
The three main classes of arthropods are: insects (cockroachs, ants, flies, bees, beetles, butterflies), crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimps, barnacles) and arachnids (scorpions, spiders, mites). Other classes are onychophorans (velvet worms), diplopods (millipedes) and chilopods (centipedes).
Divided into 3 classes; Arachnida, Merostomata & Pycnogonida
Body divided into 2 regions
Abdomen
Cephalothorax (fused head & thorax)
Lack jaws
Have 6 appendages & no antennae
First appendages form chilicerae (frequently fangs)
37
What are the characteristics of Echinodermata?
Answer
Characteristics of Echinoderms. Echinoderms are characterized by radial symmetry, several arms (5 or more, mostly grouped 2 left - 1 middle - 2 right) radiating from a central body (= pentamerous). The body actually consists of five equal segments, each containing a duplicate set of various internal organs.
38
What is a watervascular system?
The water vascular system is a hydraulic system used by echinoderms, such as sea stars and sea urchins, for locomotion, food and waste transportation, and respiration.[
39
What are the characteristics of chordata? What are the two subphylum?
Answer
These characteristics are only present during embryonic development in some chordates.
The notochord provides skeletal support, gives the phylum its name, and develops into the vertebral column in vertebrates.
The dorsal hollow nerve cord develops into the central nervous system: the brain and spine.
Subphylum Chelicerata
and
Subphylum Mandibulata
40
What are the characteristics of lampreys?
Answer
Adults physically resemble eels, in that they have no scales, and can range from 13 to 100 cm (5.0 to 40 inches) long. Lacking paired fins, adult lampreys have large eyes, one nostril on the top of the head, and seven gill pores on each side of the head. The unique morphological characteristics of lampreys, such as their cartilaginous skeleton, suggest they are the sister taxon (see cladistics) of all living jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes), and are usually considered the most basal group of the Vertebrata. Instead of true vertebrae, they have a series of cartilaginous structures called arcualia arranged above the notochord. Parasitic lampreys feed on prey as adults by attaching their mouthparts to the target animal's body, then using their teeth to cut through surface tissues until they reach blood and body fluid. Although attacks on humans do occur, they will generally not attack humans unless starved. Non-parasitic lampreys, which are usually freshwater species, do not feed as adults; they live off reserves acquired as ammocoetes (larvae), which they obtain through filter feeding.
41
What advances do we see with Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays)?
Answer
42
What are the characteristics of Osteichthyes (bony fish)?
Answer
Bony fish are characterized by a relatively stable pattern of cranial bones, rooted, medial insertion of mandibularmuscle in the lower jaw. The head and pectoral girdles are covered with large dermal bones. The eyeball is supported by a sclerotic ring of four small bones, but this characteristic has been lost or modified in many modern species. The labyrinth in the inner ear contains large otoliths. The braincase, or neurocranium, is frequently divided into anterior and posterior sections divided by a fissure.
Bony fish typically have swim bladders, which helps the body create a neutral balance between sinking and floating. However, these are absent in many species, and have developed into primitive lungs in the lungfishes. They do not have fin spines, but instead support the fin with lepidotrichia (bone fin rays). They also have an operculum, which helps them breathe without having to swim.
Bony fish have no placoid scales. Mucus glands coat the body. Most have smooth and overlapping scales of that are ganoid, cycloid or ctenoid.
43
What are the major adaptations to land seen in amphibians?
Answer
44
What are the major adaptations to land seen in reptilia?
Answer
45
What are the evolutionary advances seen in aves?
Answer
46
What are the characteristics of Mammalia?
Answer
1) Warm blooded.
2) Possess hair which is made of keratin. The evolution of mammalian keratin is believed to be independent of reptilian keratin. Hair provides insulation .
3) Endothermic. The majority of the heat energy is used to maintain their high body temperature.
4) Four chambered heart.
5) Mammary glands are used to produce milk to nourish their young. Female glands are the only functional glands.
6) Thediaphragm is a muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
7) Seven cervical vertebrae (neck bones) are present in most mammals.
8) Most are viviparous though some are oviparous. An extended gestation period uterine development is common in most placental mammals.
9) Teeth are imbedded in the jaw bone and come in a variety of forms.
10) Well developed brain.
11) Mammals developed from the therapsid ancestors during the Triassic period.
12) Mammals are heterodontic, meaning that their teeth are different shapes, except those with no teeth at all.
13) Reptiles and fish have teeth that are all basically the same, though they can vary in size throughout the mouth. See image above.
14) The Buccal Cavity (the mouth) has a false palate as a roof, meaning that the nostrils do not lead directly into his mouth.
15) The body is maintained at a constant temperature they generate heat within their bodies metabolically and also have special cooling mechanisms.
16) Highly developed neopallium.
17) Tectum reduced to corpora quadrigemina: functions mainly as a relay center for auditory information and to control visual reflexes.
18) Corpus callosum in eutherians provides additional communication
19) Smell acute except whales and higher apes.
20) Eye typical of amniotes.
21) Tapetum lucidum well developed in nocturnal mammals.
22) Touch- most have vibrissae that are controlled by facial muscles.
23) Lateral movement of jaw during mastication.
24) Viviparous except monotremes which are egg lying.
25) Parental care well developed.
47
Define: Herbivore
A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material for the main component of its diet.
48
Define Carnivore
is an organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue.
49
Define Omnivore
is an animal that can derive its energy and nutrients from a diet consisting of a variety of food sources that may include plants, animals, algae, fungi and bacteria
50
What is a suspension feeder?
are animals that feed by straining suspended matter and food particles from water, typically by passing the water over a specialized filtering structure.
51
What is a substrate feeder?
Organism that lives on their food source. Ex. lice (live on the skin and feed off skin , termites live in wood and feed off wood), caterpillars, maggots and fruit
52
What is a fluid feeder?
Fluid feeders are organisms that feed on the fluid of other organisms. It can refer to:
Hematophagy, feeding on blood
Nectarivore, feeding on nectar
Plant sap feeders
Leeches
53
What is a bulk feeder?
Ingest large pieces of food. Ex: Boa constrictors eat mouse whole.
54
Be able to follow food through the digestive tract.
Answer
55
Be able to describe the evolutionary advances in the digestive tract from no digestive tract to one opening to two and to compartmentalization.
Answer
56
Be able to describe the digestion that takes place in the mouth.
Answer
The digestion that occurs in the mouth is both mechanical and chemical. Your teeth and tongue are involved in mechanical digestion, helping you to grind and mix the food to make it easier to swallow. Saliva secreted from salivary glands provides the chemical digestion, which helps to break down foods in the mouth.
57
Describe what happens during swallowing the movement of the food down the digestive tract.
Swallowing, which is accomplished by muscle movements in the tongue and mouth, moves the food into the throat, or pharynx. The pharynx, a passageway for food and air, is about 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) long. A flexible flap of tissue called the epiglottis reflexively closes over the windpipe when we swallow to prevent choking.
From the throat, food travels down a muscular tube in the chest called the esophagus. Waves of muscle contractions called peristalsis force food down through the esophagus to the stomach. A person normally isn't aware of the movements of the esophagus, stomach, and intestine that take place as food passes through the digestive tract.
At the end of the esophagus, a muscular ring or valve called a sphincter allows food to enter the stomach and then squeezes shut to keep food or fluid from flowing back up into the esophagus. The stomach muscles churn and mix the food with acids and enzymes, breaking it into much smaller, digestible pieces. An acidic environment is needed for the digestion that takes place in the stomach. Glands in the stomach lining produce about 3 quarts (2.8 liters) of these digestive juices each day.
58
Describe what digestion is taking place in the stomach and the role the stomach plays in digestion.
Answer
59
Describe the digestion that takes place in the intestines and the organs that are involved and the role those organs play.
Answer
60
Where does the majority of the absorption take place in the digestive system?
Most of the absorption of food takes place in the ileum of the small intestine. The villi lining the walls absorb the nutrients from food.
61
Where does the majority of the absorption take place in the digestive system?
Answer
Most of the absorption of food takes place in the ileum of the small intestine.
62
What is the role of the large intestine in digestion?
Answer
Major function of the large intestine. The major function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter and transmit the useless waste material from the body.
63
How do digestive tracts differ with differing animal diets?
Answer
Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion is more primitive, and most fungi still rely on it.[2] In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.[3]
Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.
64
Describe respiration in plants and the role the stomata play.
Answer
65
Describe the anatomy of the leaf.
Answer
The leaf is the primary photosynthetic organ of the plant. It consists of a flattened portion, called the blade, that is attached to the plant by a structure called the petiole. Sometimes leaves are divided into two or more sections called leaflets. Leaves with a single undivided blade are called simple, those with two or more leaflets are called compound.
The outer surface of the leaf has a thin waxy covering called the cuticle (A), this layer's primary function is to prevent water loss within the leaf. (Plants that leave entirely within water do not have a cuticle). Directly underneath the cuticle is a layer of cells called the epidermis (B). The vascular tissue, xylem and phloem are found within the veins of the leaf. Veins are actually extensions that run from to tips of the roots all the way up to the edges of the leaves. The outer layer of the vein is made of cells called bundle sheath cells (E), and they create a circle around the xylem and the phloem. On the picture, xylem is the upper layer of cells (G) and is shaded a little lighter than the lower layer of cells - phloem (H). Recall that xylem transports water and phloem transports sugar (food).
Within the leaf, there is a layer of cells called the mesophyll. The word mesophyll is greek and means "middle" (meso) "leaf" (phyllon). Mesophyll can then be divided into two layers, the palisade layer (D) and the spongy layer (F). Palisade cells are more column-like, and lie just under the epidermis, the spongy cells are more loosely packed and lie between the palisade layer and the lower epidermis. The air spaces between the spongy cells allow for gas exchange. Mesophyll cells (both palisade and spongy) are packed with chloroplasts, and this is where photosynthesis actually occurs.
Epidermis also lines the lower area of the leaf (as does the cuticle). The leaf also has tiny holes within the epidermis called stomata. Specialized cells, called guard cells (C) surround the stomata and are shaped like two cupped hands. Changes within water pressure cause the stoma (singular of stomata) to open or close. If the guard cells are full of water, they swell up and bend away from each other which opens the stoma. During dry times, the guard cells close.
66
How do the stomata function?
The stomata are located on the leaves. They're involved witht eh
67
How is gas exchange accomplished in animals?
Answer
68
Describe respiration in earthworms.
Earthworms breathe through their skin. Beneath their skin are capillaries that release CO2 and take in O2. They have to move out of the soil to breathe. Under soil with lots of H20 will make them drown. We can see a close association between respiratory and circulatory systems.
69
Describe respiration in fish.
* Fish get their oxygen through their gills.
* Gills have capillaries that release CO2 and absorb O2 and they also are highly folded which increases the surface area allowing more absorption of O2.
* Gills are protected by a flap of skin called operculum.
* HOW: Fishes open their mouth to let water flow in , the operculum ejects outward so water can flow over the gills where O2 is recieved.
* Fish breathing: http://youtu.be/XEIRlw5rCUk
* Fish in stagnant water have larger gill surface areas. Fish need O2 in water. Ocean waves oxynegate the water for fish whereas smaller ponds don't so you won't see a large fish population.
* Inside gill arch with blood vessels and gill filaments O2 exchange happens
* Important feature: O2 rich blood and O2 poor blood flow opposite of eachother over the Lamelia. Counterflow makes sure there's always diffusion occuring.
70
Describe respiration in beetles.
* Beetles do not have a central lung repsiratory system and no capillaries
* Instead, beetles have tracheae reinfored with chitin and air tubes along their exoskeleton
* Tracheae is like a vaccuum cleaner that sucks air in chitin are like the ridges of the vaccuum.
* Trachae branches into tracheoles (not reinforced by chitin)
* Air enters through spiracles on the abdomen
* Muscles contract to suck air in
* Efficiency: Have an individual delivery system for muscle and tissue cells that need it.
* Closed tubes have H20 at the end.
71
Describe respiration amphibians.
* Amphibians have tiny lungs
* They need H20 to breathe
* Use skin surface as a secondary respiration organ in addition to lungs
* They keep their skin moist to absorb dissolved O2
* Have a hard time breathing through nostrils b/c they have no diaphragm. They have to open mouth cavity and close nostrils to force air in.
* http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Engineering/Courses/En123/MuscleExp/Frog%20Respiration.htm
72
Describe respiration in reptiles.
* Reptiles have highly folded lungs = large surface area; very complex
* Water proof skin so just give them drinking water
73
Describe respiration in birds.
* One way flow respiration/circular breathing
* Can get 5% more O2 with each breath compared to humans
* Air sacs fill on inhalation
* Air sacs empty on exhalation but lungs fill
* They have: Anterior and posterior air sacs, trachea (where air enters and leaves), and lungs that have air tubes
74
Define the terms conducting and gas exchange systems. (For the human respiratory system):
1. The Conducting System- brings air into lungs (moist surface)
2. The Gas Exhange system- gas exhange with the circulatory system
\* Large enough to give to cell's mitochondria
* Trachea has cartillage thats u-shaped
* Lots of surface area on alveoli = more O2
* Thin layer of H20 on alveoli
* O2 rich blood and poor blood vessels attach to alveoli
* Blood capillaries on alveoli
75
How are the lungs protected?
* Nasal Cavity and trachea filters and gets rid of large particles before it hits the lungs
* NOSE-Mucus collects debris including invading viruses
* TRACHEA-Cilia (hair on cells) moves invaders up to the pharynx area where they are redirected to move down the esophagus to get destroyed by stomach juices.
* Cilia is sticky to catch bacteria and dirt
* Lots of mucus is created to protect lungs from bacteria going in lungs
76
Describe how the surface of the lung is increased?
* Alveoli increases lung surface area by around 75 square meters (80 times the area of skin)
* Diffusion occurs because alveoli and capillaries surrounding them are only one cell thick (not a thick barrier)
* Continual branching! Trachea to bronchi to bronchioles to alveoli (gas exchange)
77
Describe inhalation and exhalation.
1. Inhalation-AIR sucked IN Diaphragm contracts and moves down and rib cage expands (increase)
2. Exhalation-AIR pushed OUT Diaphragm relaxes and moves up and rib cage shrinks (decrease)
* Breathing means an alternation of the two
78
What is the difference between positive and negative pressure breathing?
Negative pressure breathing sucking air into the lungs (?) and air being pushed out of the lungs (i.e. humans when diaphragm decreases and relaxes)
Positive pressure breathing is gulping/forcing air into the lungs to improve pressure issues. (i.e. Frogs will push air in and close their nasal passage, their thorax will expand and they'll swallow air into their trachea down to their lungs).
79
Where are the breathing control sensors and what do they monitor?
* Medulla Oblongata is found at the lowest part of the brain near brain stem and monitors CO2 levels
http: //brainmadesimple.com/medulla-oblongata.html
* CO2 levels are monitored via pH
* Sensors near heart monitor CO2 levels
80
Describe hemoglobin and how it functions. How does it superload the blood with oxygen?
* Structure:
* Quartenary Structure meaning 4 polypeptide chaings
* Each chain has a heme group
* In the center of the heme group is an Fe
* Uses cooperative binding (when one binds theres a change so the next one will bind easier)
* It lowers conc. of O2 next to lungs when it binds to an O2 itself-WHY?
* B/c it plays a trick on the system by changing the identity of O2 to being an oxyhemoglobin so the body thinks it has a low concentration of O2 in the plasma so diffusion will occur into the plasma
* Therefore this allows blood to carry 70 times more O2 aka SUPERLOADINGTHE BLOOD with O2
* Heme group will being to Carbon Monoxide which can lead to problems
81
What happens with carbon monoxide?
The heme group will bind tightly with carbon monoxide (CO).
http://www.cdc.gov/co/faqs.htm
Red Blood cells/heme group will bind to CO but not enough O2, this will cause cherry red cheeks and fingers and can leave a person poisoned to death.
This is why fireman carry pure O2 tanks to keep from breathing CO. CO will not let go of hemoglobin and will take the place of O2.
82
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
1. 20% CO2 binds to hemoglobin
2. 10% dissolves in plasma
3. 70% is converted by enzyme: carbonic anhydrase to transport it as bicarbonate (HCO3-)
\*Bicarbonate lowers pH of blood (more acidic/H+ ions)
More CO2 the more acidic the blood is in that region.
Acidic environment changes hemoglobin shape to dump O2 into plasma on those bicarbonate regions.
83
What is the effect of pH on hemoglobin?
Hemoglobin is effected by the acidic pH environment caused by the CO2. This changes the shape of the hemoglobin and makes it dump off O2 in low pH, high biocarbonate level regions.
84
How do babies get their oxygen?
* Babies get their O2 and hemoglobin through placenta from mama
* When baby is born, they take in their first breath because of high CO2 levels
* Fetal hemoglobin grabs O2 better than adult hemoglobin
* (Fetal turns to adult hemo at birth)
85
Define: xylem
Is a transport tissue in vascular plants that conducts water up from the roots. Roots -\>Stems -\> Leaves. Can only move water upwards.
86
Define phloem.
The vascular tissue in plants that conducts sugars and other metabolic products (i.e. carbs and amino acids) from the leaves to other areas like leaves and roots of the plant for storage. The phloem can move up and down. In osmosis, the phloem has a low concentration of water. Leaves-\>Stem-\>Roots and other areas of the plant for storage.
87
Define bulk flow.
Bulk flow is the process by which proteins with a sorting signal, travel to and from different cellular compartments. Ex: Maple Syrup because the tree takes sugar and brings it to the bark or Molasses.
88
Define cohesion-tension.
The hypothesis used to explain how water can travel upwards against gravity in a plant. Transpiration is believed to play a large factor in this, where the cohesive water travels upwards replacing water lost. (Cohesion has to do with the Hydrogen Bonds holding water together. Tension is the evaporation of water out of the stomata).
89
Define Hydrogen Bonding and adhesion
Hydrogen bonding refers to the cohesion of water and its ability to stick together by itself. Adhesion refers to water's ability to stick close and attract itself with the inner cell walls of a plant's xylem vessels.
90
Be able to describe how water and minerals move through the xylem.
91
Describe how phloem moves the sugars through the plant.
Answer
92
Define: blood, blood vessels, and heart, open and closed circulatory systems.
Answer
93
What roles does the circulatory system play in the body?
The role of the circulatory system is to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients from the digestive system. Waste and toxic substances, distributes hormones, regulates body temperature, prevents blood clots and supports immune system function.
94
Define: artery, arteriole, capillaries, veinules, veins.
Answer
95
Follow the evolution of the circulatory system through fish.
Answer
96
Follow the evolution of the circulatory system through amphibians.
Answer
97
Follow the evolution of the circulatory system through birds.
Answer
98
Follow the evolution of the circulatory system through mammals.
Answer
99
Describe the human heart and the role of each of the chambers in circulation.
Answer
Exploring the Heart - The Circulatory System!: http://youtu.be/-s5iCoCaofc
Circulatory System Bill Nye on the Heart (Part …: http://youtu.be/GbttJ-5do9M
Circulatory System Bill Nye on the Heart (Part …: http://youtu.be/RiYOuI7iyp8
100
Define pulmonary and systemic circulation.
* **Pulmonary circulation** is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated (oxygen-rich) blood back to the heart.
* (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary\_circulation)
* **Systemic circulation** is the part of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
101
Define the cardiac cycle.
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occurs when the heart beats. There are two phases of the cardiac cycle. In the diastole phase, the heart ventricles are relaxed and the heart fills with blood. In the systole phase, the ventricles contract and pump blood to the arteries. One cardiac cycle is completed when the heart fills with blood and the blood is pumped out of the heart.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VUtehbgbpRk
102
Define systolic pressure.
* Blood pressure is measured in two numbers, the first is systolic this measures the pressure in the blood vessels when the heart beats.
* This is the top number when you do a blood pressure reading.
* Systolic pressure happens when the heart beats and arteries push out blood through the rest of the body.
* Minor detail:
Normal : Below 120
Highblood pressure: 140 or higher
LINKS:
* http://www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure/measure.htm
* http://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/guide/diastolic-and-systolic-blood-pressure-know-your-numbers
103
Define diastolic pressure.
* Diastolic pressure is the bottom number of a blood pressure reading.
* This is the pressure in the arteries when the heart rests between each beat.
* Minor detail:
* Normal: less than 80
* Highblood pressure: 90 or higher
* Look at this link to know how the Doctor uses a cuff to tell you blood pressure (it explains the lab we did today 12/04/14)
* Link: http://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/guide/diastolic-and-systolic-blood-pressure-know-your-numbers
104
What are the Atrioventricular and Semilunar Valves?
* **Atrioventricular valve** - either of two heart valves through which blood flows from the atria to the ventricles; prevents return of blood to the atrium found between the atrium and the ventricle
* **Right atrioventricualr valve** is know as a tricuspid valve because it has 3 cusps or 3 flaps situated between the right atrium and the right ventricle; allows blood to pass from atrium to ventricle and closes to prevent backflow when the ventricle contracts
* **Left atrioventricular vavle** is known as the bicuspid valve situated between the left atrium and the left ventricle
* **Right semilunar valve** is known as the pulmonary valve because it leads to the pulmonary artery
* **Left semilunar vavle** is known as the aortic valve because it leads to the aortic
*
* Link to pictures: http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/thompsonj/anatomy%20&%20physiology/2020/2020%20exam%20reviews/exam%201/ch18%20valves%20of%20the%20heart.htm
* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VUtehbgbpRk
105
Define Fibrillation.
* Rapid and irregular uncoordinated contractions of the muscle fibers of the heart resulting a lack of synchronism between heartbeat and pulse
* Abnormal heart rhythm and irregular heart beat
* This causes low blood flow to the body and can cause blood clots and then stroke or ischemia (blocked blood flow)
* Link: http://i.word.com/idictionary/fibrillation
* Link: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/atrial-fibrillation/basics/definition/con-20027014
106
Be able to describe how the pacemaker maintains a regular heartbeat.
* When is a Pacemaker Needed?
* The most common reason for a pacemaker is a heartbeat that slows to an unhealthy rate, or bradycardia. A pacemaker resets the heart rate to an appropriate pace, ensuring adequate blood and oxygen are delivered to the brain and other parts of the body.
* Pacemakers
* Each individual heartbeat is actually a collection of several muscle movements spurred into action by electrical impulses.
* The first electrical signal comes from the heart’s own natural pacemaker, the sinoatrial node, comprised of electrically active cells and located in the upper right heart chamber. This node sends a steady burst of electricity along a pathway through the heart’s upper chambers. The signals then travel to the electrical bridge – the atrioventricular node – between the upper and lower chambers and, finally, move to the lower chambers.
* A problem at any point in the electrical pathway can wreak havoc with the regular beating of a heart. Luckily, an artificial pacemaker – a small, battery -operated device – can take over the role of the heart’s own electrical system, if necessary.
* Although it weighs just about an ounce, a pacemaker contains a powerful battery, electronic circuits and computer memory that together generate electronic signals. The signals, or pacing pulses, are carried along thin, insulated wires, or leads, to the heart muscle. The signals cause the heart muscle to begin the contractions that cause a heartbeat.
http://www.arrhythmia.org/pacemaker.html
107
Define: Artery, Arteriole, capillary, venule, and vein.
SENT FROM THE HEART (O2 Rich) at high pressure-
* The largest **artery** is the Aorta that branches into **Arteries** that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to be sent to the tissues of the body. They contract and relax. Made of a thick layer of smooth muscle (has total of 3 layers) and a wide oval lumin to accomadate rapid blood flow.
* Special case: The pulmonary artery carries oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs under low blood pressure.
* **Arterioles** branch from arteries and lead to capillaries. They regulate blood flow.
* **Capillaries** are blood vessels that branch from arterioles. They extend all over into the tissues in the body.
* **Capillaries** are one cell thick.
* **Capillary and Tissue Exchange (diffusion)**: They deliver O2 rich blood and nutrients and pick up waste(CO2).
RETURN to the Heart (O2 POOR) at low pressure-
* **Venules** drain deoxygenated blood from the capillaries to the veins for return to the heart.
* **Veins **are thinner and more elasctic than arteries. They send deoxygenated blood to the heart.
* **Veins **have valves to prevent blood flowing in the wrong direction (avoid returning waste materials to the tissues)
Link to vocab: http://www.lhsc.on.ca/Patients\_Families\_Visitors/CCTC/Words/vasoact.htm
Link to Khan Academy video: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/human-anatomy-and-physiology/heart-introduction/v/arteries-arterioles-venules-and-veins
http: //www.webmd.com/heart/picture-of-the-arteries
http: //m.ivyroses.com/HumanBody/Blood/Blood\_Vessels.php
108
Describe the function of the arteriole in circulation and its special physical features.
a
109
Describe the function of the artery in circulation and its special physical features.
Answer
http://my.clevelandclinic.org/services/heart/heart-blood-vessels/how-does-blood-travel-through-body
110
Describe the function of the capillary in circulation and its special physical features.
Answer
111
Describe the function of the venule in circulation and its special physical features.
Answer
112
Describe the function of the vein in circulation and its special physical features.
Answer
113
Describe the movement of fluids in and out of the capillaries.
Answer
114
Describe how blood is pumped through the veins.
* Pressure from the muscles squashing the veins will make the blood move. But without valves the blood moves without direction and so the blood is not pumped out of the leg.
* The return of blood to the heart is assisted by the action of the skeletal-[muscle](https://www.boundless.com/definition/muscle/) pump. As muscles move, they squeeze the veins that run through them. Veins contain a series of one-way valves, and as the vein is squeezed, it pushes blood through the valves, which then close to prevent backflow.
* While our arteries have our strong heart pumping the blood through them and benefit from gravity pulling the blood downward from our heart to the rest of our body, our veins have to generate their own pumping action. They also have to pump the blood upward, against gravity.
115
Describe how capillary blood flow is regulated.
Answer
116
What is the role of the lymph system?
Closely associated with circulatory system.
Removes excess fluid leaking from capillaries.
Transports fats.
Important in the immune system.
117
How does the lymph system differ from the circulatory system?
Answer
118
Describe the role of the three different muscle types in circulation.
Answer
119
What are the components of blood?
Answer
120
How do blood clots form?
* Blood clots form when blood fails to circulate adequately.
* Blood clotting normally occurs when there is damage to a blood vessel. Platelets immediately begin to adhere to the cut edges of the vessel and release chemicals to attract even more platelets. A platelet plug is formed, and the external bleeding stops.
Next, small molecules, called clotting factors, cause strands of blood-borne materials, called fibrin, to stick together and seal the inside of the wound. Eventually, the cut blood vessel heals and the blood clot dissolves after a few days.
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/19462.htm
121
Define homeostasis
122
Define positive and negative feedback.
Negative feedback, a form of regulation in which the results of a process inhibit that same process.
Positive feedback, in which the results of a process intensify that same process. ex.
123
Define hormones.
Hormone: In multicellular organisms, a regulatory chemical that travels in body fluids from its production site to target cells- carried by the circulatory sytem
Secreted by endocrine glands which make up the endocrine system and travels to the target cells which responds to a regulatory signal, such a hormone.
124
Define endocrine glands.
Endocrine gland is a gland that synthesizes hormone molecules and secretes them directly into the bloodstream.
125
Define neurosecretory cells and target cells.
Neurosecretory cells is a nerve cell that synthesizes hormones and secretes them into the blood, as well as conducting nerve signals. -provides both nerve impulses and hormone release- and hits only target cells.
Target cells- a cell that responds to a regulatory signal, such as a hormone- that have receptors for the hormones.
126
What are the three classes of hormones?
The three classes of hormones are **Proteins and Peptides** (small polypeptides containing 3-30 amino acids), **Amines** ( molecules derived from amino acids) are water-soluble(epinephrine)- which bind to receptors in the plasma membrane. **Steroid** hormones such as sex hormones are lipid-soluble made from cholesterol- which bind to receptors inside the cell.
127
Describe the role of the hormones secreted by the hypothalamus and the pituitary.
The hypothalamus exerts control over the anterior pituitary by secreting two kinds of hormones: **Releasing hormone** stimulate the anterior pituitary to secreter hormones, and **Inhibiting hormones** induce the anterior pituitary to stop secreting hormones.
128
Describe calcium homeostasis.
The Parathyroid glands (there are 4 glands embedded in the surface of the thyroid) and Thyroid function in the homeostasis of calcium ions (CA2+) keeping the concentration of the ions within a narrow range (about 10mg of CA2+ per 100mL of blood). Parathyroids secrete **Parathyroid hormone (PTH)** raises calcium level in the blood and Thyroid secretes **2 peptide hormones, Calcitonin**, which lowers the calcium level, these two antagonistic hormones regulate blood calcium levels.
129
Describe how blood glucose levels are maintained.
The pancreas produces two hormones that manages the body's energy supplies. In the pancreas endocrine cells, called islets of Langerhans, each islet has a population of beta cells, which produce the hormone **insulin**, and a population of alpha cells which produce another hormone, **glucagon**. They are both secreted into the blood. If there is a decline of glucose level in the blood Alpha cells of the pancreas stimulated to release glucagon into the blood. Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose to the blood, and blood glucose level rise to set point; stimulus for glucagon release is diminish. If high glucose, beta cells in the pancreas stimulated to release insulin into the blood body cells take up more glucose and the liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen. Glucose level declines to a set point.
130
What is the role of the urinary system in the body?
Involved in homeostasis and eliminates certain waste. Regulates blood concentration of sodium, potassium, chlorine and calcium. Regulates water levels, pH, glucose, amino acids levels in the blood.
131
Compare and contrast the three ways to get rid of ammonia that animals employ.
Most aquatic animals, including most fishes get rid of the **Ammonia** directly because they are in an aquatic environment. Mammals. Amphibians, sharks, some bony fishes get rid of ammonia in the **Urea** highly soluble in water less toxic than ammonia. Birds and many other reptiles, insects, land snails get rid of ammonia as **Uric acid** insoluble n water allows for less water loss ex. Bird poop.
132
What is the livers function in the urinary system?
The liver prepares the nitrogenous wastes (ammonia) for disposal by synthesizing urea. It aso converts toxins such as alcohol and other drugs into inactive products that can be excreted in urine.
133
Describe the path of urine through the urinary system.
Blood enters the **kidneys** through **renal artery** for filtration; blood that has been filtered leaves the kidney in the renal vein. Within the kidney, the renal artery branches into millions of thin blood vessels. A branch of a renal artery supplies blood to a **nephron** via a network of capillaries. A nephron consists of a tubulle and its associated blood vessels.Each kidney contains about a milion nephrons. At the end of the tubule, urine leaves the nephron via a **collecting duct**. Urine collects in the kidney and then leaves via the **ureter**. Urine is stored in the **urinary bladder**. Periodically, urine is expelled from the urinary bladder via the **urethra**.
134
Define ureters.
Urine leaves the kidney through duct called a ureter
135
Define bladder.
The urine that passes through the ureter empties into the urinary bladder, and the periodically the bladder empties during urination.
136
Define urethra.
Urine leaves the body through a tube called the urethra, which empties near the female vagina or through the male penis.
137
Define renal cortex.
The adrenal cortex is the outer region of the kidney containing glomeruli, and convuluted tubules. Sections of the renal tubule found in the cortex are the proximal tubule, the distal convoluted tubule, and portions of the collecting ducts,
138
Define renal medulla.
The inner region of the kidney contains structures known as collecting ducts and loops of Henle. From the medulla urine flows into a chamber called the renal pelvis, and from there into the ureter. Its main function is to maintain the balance of water and salt in the blood...It is thought that the tissue of the kidney’s medulla, or inner substance, contains a high concentration of sodium. As the collecting tubules travel through the medulla, the concentration of sodium causes water to be extracted through the tubule walls into the medulla.
139
Define renal pelvis.
The renal pelvis is the chamber where urine flows from the renal medulla region.
140
Define Nephron.
A tubular excretory unit and associated blood vessels of the vertebrate kidney; **extracts filtrate from the blood and refines it into urine.** The receiving end of the nephron is a cup-shaped swelling, called a Bowman's capsule. At the other end of the nephron is the collecting duct, which carries urine to the renal pelvis.
141
Define glomerulus.
A network or ball of capillaries (plural, glomeruli) enveloped by the Bowman's capsule which both make up the blood -filtering unit of the nephron.
142
Define distal and proximal tubule.
The proximal tubule actively transports nutrients such as glucose and amino acids from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid, to be reabsorbed int the capillaries. NaCl (salt) is reabsorbed from both the proximal and distal tubules. As NaCl is transported from the filtrate to the interstitial fluid, water follows by osmosis. Secretion of excess H+ and reabsorption of HCO3- also occur in the proximal and distal tubules, helping to regulate the blood's pH. Potassium concentration in the blood is regulated by secretion of excess K+ into the distal tubule. Drugs and posons that were processed in the liver are secreted into the proximal tubule.
143
Define loop of Henle and collecting duct.
The loop of Henle is a part of a nephron, a tiny tube inside the kidneys that filters solutes. Each kidney contains hundreds of thousands of individual nephrons, which pass between the cortex of the kidneys and the medulla, connecting to collecting ducts which route urine to the ureter so that it can be expressed. **The loop is an important part of the whole system, as it allows the kidneys to filter out salt and maintain the correct balance of water in the body.**
As the name would suggest, the structure is a large loop that dips down from the nephron to create a descending arm that connects with the medulla, and an ascending arm that moves back into the cortex of the kidney. As fluids move down the loop, water is filtered out, moving into the interstitial fluid of the medulla. When the fluid moves up the ascending arm, salts are pulled out, and the cells are impermeable to water, so no additional water is lost.
Because salt and water are filtered out at different points, the loop of Henle contributes to the formation of an area of high salt concentration in the medulla. Meanwhile, the filtrate in the nephron passes through to the collecting ducts. The ducts pass through the medulla, which means that they move through an area of increased salt concentration. The **collecting ducts** are a series of small tubes inside the kidneys that funnel urine into the renal pelvis for drainage into the ureter.
144
Be able to describe how the nephron filters the blood and is able to excrete concentrated urine.
The nephron carry out the functions of the urinary system. Blood pressure forces water and solutes from the blood through a filter at the start of the nephron tubule, creating filtrate. As the filtrate then passes through the tubule, water and needed nutrients are reabsorbed into the bloodstream and wastes are secreted into the filtrate. The filtrate becomes more and more concentrated resulting in a relatively small quantity of urine.
145
What is the role of ADH?
* ADH stands for Anti-Diuretic Hormone
* If the body needs a lot of fluid, the hypothalamus will react to produce the ADH. ADH stimulates the kidney to do more reabsorption of water. By this way, the fluid concentration in the body is still normal.
* Anti-diuretic hormone is made by special nerves in the hypothalamus which deliver it to the pituitary gland from where it is released into the bloodstream. Anti-diuretic hormone helps to control blood pressure by acting on the kidneys and the blood vessels. Its most important function is to conserve the fluid volume of your body by reducing the amount of water passed out in the urine. It does this by increasing the permeability of a specific region of the kidney through which urine flows. Thus, more water returns to the bloodstream, urine concentration rises and water loss is reduced.
* How is anti-diuretic hormone controlled?
The release of anti-diuretic hormone from the pituitary into the bloodstream is regulated by a number of factors. A decrease in blood volume or low blood pressure, which occurs during dehydration or a haemorrhage, is detected by receptors in the heart and large blood vessels, and stimulates anti-diuretic hormone release. Secretion of anti-diuretic hormone also occurs if the concentration of salts in the bloodstream increases, for example, as a result of not drinking enough water on a hot day. This is detected by special sensors in the hypothalamus which simulate anti-diuretic hormone release from the pituitary. If the concentration of salts reaches abnormally low levels, this condition is called hyponatraemia. Anti-diuretic hormone is also released by thirst, nausea, vomiting and pain, and acts to keep up the volume of fluid in the bloodstream at times of stress or injury. Alcohol prevents anti-diuretic hormone release which causes an increase in urine production and dehydration.
https: //www.youtube.com/watch?v=0wL4sYhfm3c
http: //www.yourhormones.info/hormones/antidiuretic\_hormone.aspx
146
Define community.
all the organisms acting together in an ecosystem.
Ex: Plants, animals, fungi and bacteria working togehter
147
Define ecosystem.
* a system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their environment.
* All the organisms in a given area, along with the non living (abiotic) factors with which they interact; a biological communtiy and it's physical environment
148
Define species diversity.
The variety of species that make up a community.
149
Define dominant species.
* Not always the most abundant
* More numerous than competitors
*
* The species that predominates in an ecological community, particularly when they are most numerous or form the bulk of the biomass.
150
Define Response to Disturbance.
* The effects on the ecosystem: Flood, fire or drought
*
151
Define trophic structure.
A
152
Define Interspecific competition
A
153
Define carrying capacity.
A
154
Define Competitive exclusion principle.
A
155
Define niche.
The area that provides the best growth condition.
156
Define resource partitioning.
Similar species co-exist.
Ex: Two species of Lizards live/survive in same environment but don't mate. Partioning separates them. One lives in the shady branch and the other on the leaves.
157
Define adaptive radiation.
The evolution of many new species from a common ancestor introduced to a new and diverse environment.
Ex: Galapagos Finches
158
Define predator and prey.
* PREDATOR:
* An animal that preys on another and consumer in a biological community.
* Ex: herbivores, carnivores
* Ex: Cow eats grass with insects on it
PREY:
* An organism eaten by a predator.
Both prey and predator have adaptations to ensure survival
159
Define camouflage.
The act of decieving the predator by blending in with the environment.
Ex: Frog can blend to look like a rock to avoid being eaten by a bird.
160
Define mechanical defenses.
Example: Claws and thorns and spines
161
Define chemical defenses.
Examples: Snake venum
Frog mimicks a poisonous color
162
Define mimicry.
Usually taken on by prey.
the action or art of imitating someone or something, typically in order to entertain or ridicule.
* Predators also
* Example: Snapping Turtles have tongues that look like worms and draw in fish
163
Define Batesian and Mullerian mimicry.
Example: Batesian mimicry it mimicks a poisonous snake so the birds avoid the creature.
Example: Mullerian mimicry is the bee and the wasp that mimick each other. Their color makes them appear poisonous to other animals
164
Define Keytone species and keystone preditor.
A
165
Be able to describe how plants can defend themselves.
* Has chemical toxins
* Thorns and spines to prickle for protection
* chemicals that cause abnormal development
166
Coevolution?
Two or more species having a close ecological relationship evolve together such that one species adapt to the changes of the other, thereby affecting each other'sevolution.
Example: Catepillar and passion flower
167
Symbiotic Relationship?
Interaction between 2 or more species that live together in direct contact
168
Parasitism?
Most common where on wins and the other loses.
A parasite that lives on or in its host and obtains it's nourishment from the host
Ex: Tapeworm
169
Commensalism?
One partner benefits without significantly affecting the other.
Example: Bird feeding on insects
170
Mutualism?
Benefits both partners in the relationsip (win-win).
Example: E.coli in our gut. Gives us vitamin K and we feed it nutrients
or Ants and plants
171
Disturbances?
Flood, Drought and Fire
172
Ecological Succession?
A
173
Primary Succession?
174
Secondary Succession?
A
175
Be able to describe all the parts of a food chain and a food web. Include all the members including the decomposers.
A
176
What is an energy bucket?
a
177
What is primary productivity and how does it relate to the pyramid of production?
A
178
Describe the cycling of water.
A
179
Describe the cycling of carbon.
A
180
Describe the cycling phosphorus.
A
181
Describe the cycling of nitrogen.
A
182
What is biodiversity?
* The variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem.
* The term biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and the ecological and evolutionary processes that sustain it. Biodiversity includes not only species we consider rare, threatened, or endangered, but every living thing — even organisms we still know little about, such as microbes, fungi, and invertebrates. Biodiversity is important everywhere; species and habitats in your area as well as those in distant lands all play a role in maintaining healthy ecosystems.
183
What are the threats to biodiversity?
A
184
What is biological magnification?
A
185
What is global warming and how is it occurring?
A
186
Why should we be concerned about small populations?
A
187
Define restoration ecology.
A
188
Define bioremediation.
A
189
Define biological augmentation.
A
190
What are plasmids and cloning?
A
191
Be able to describe what you did in the plasmid and cloning lab and the purpose behind every step (be detailed).
A
192
How do enzymes work?
* **Enzymes** are biological molecules (typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells.
* Usually, the processes or reactions are part of a cycle or pathway, with separate reactions at each step. Each step of a pathway or cycle usually requires a specific enzyme.
* **Enzymes** have an activation site where a substrate or reactant will bind, this forms the *enzyme-substrate complex * which weakens the chemical bonds of the substrate. The weakening of these bonds fuses and links the two or more substrate molecules to form a new molecule. This forms a new *product* which is then released from the activation site.
* More details on enzymes: http://www.livescience.com/45145-how-do-enzymes-work.html
* Enzyme Animation: http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072495855/student\_view0/chapter2/animation\_\_how\_enzymes\_work.html
193
How does the enzyme ligase work?
Ligase is an enzyme that joins DNA fragments together by catalzying the formation of bonds between nucleotides. Joins pieces together.
http://biotechlearn.org.nz/themes/dna\_lab/dna\_ligation
194
What is cDNA? Describe how to make cDNA.
A
195
What are stem cells? What is the difference between adult and embryonic stem cells?
A
196
What is a micro array and how do you do the analysis?
A
197
Describe gel electrophoresis.
The purpose of gel electrophoresis is to separate fragments of DNA by size (measured according to distance traveled and number of basepairs). You pipette samples into wells, then attach a anode (negative electrode) on the wells' side and an cathode (postive electrode) to the end. The negative charge of the DNA will cause the DNA to move toward the postive charge. There will be three kinds of fragments: Linear, coiled and super coiled. Larger fragments will have a harder time moving through the gel, so they'll be found closer to the wells and the smaller fragments will be found farthest from the well because they can move faster through the gel's pores. You can tell which DNA is which by looking at distance traveled and number of basepairs. Ethidium Bromide placed in the gel prior will cause the gel to fluoresce under a UV light to visualize the fragments.
198
What are RFLPs?
A
199
Describe the method of PCR?
PCR stands for Polymerase chain reaction. The purpose is to beable to amplify a specific DNA or RNA sequence.
http: //www.medicinenet.com/script/main/mobileart.asp?articlekey=23557&page=2
http: //www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/cloning/clone9.htm
200
What is repetitive DNA?
* Repetitive DNA: DNA sequences that are repeated in the genome. These sequences do not code for protein. One class termed highly repetitive DNA consists of short sequences, 5-100 nucleotides, repeated thousands of times in a single stretch and includes satellite DNA.
201
Transposons?
* Another class termed moderately repetitive DNA consists of longer sequences, about 150-300 nucleotides, dispersed evenly throughout the genome, and includes what are called Alu sequences and transposons.
* Transposons are segments of DNA that can move around to different positions in the genome of a single cell. In the process, they may
cause : mutations, increase (or decrease) the amount of DNA in the genome of the cell, and if the cell is the precursor of a gamete, in the genomes of any descendants.
These mobile segments of DNA are sometimes called "jumping genes".
* http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5309
* http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Transposons.html
202
Telomeres?
Telomeres are at the ends of chromosomes are like caps. Telomeres protect chromosomes from deterioration or fusion with other chromosomes and are just repetitive nucleotide sequences.
With each DNA replication, chromosomes shorten
Theory: Lengthen telomeres = lengthen your lifespan
203
Describe gene transformation in plants?
A
204
What is DNA sequencing?
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases—adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine—in a strand of DNA.
Sanger method: http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/D/DNAsequencing.html
