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Bio Module 2 > Biological molecules 2.2 > Flashcards

Biological molecules 2.2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a condensation reaction?

A

Reaction that occurs when two molecules are joined together with the removal of water

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2
Q

What is a hydrolysis reaction?

A

A reaction that occurs when a molecule is split into two smaller molecules with the addition of water

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3
Q

What is a hydrogen bond?

A

A weak interaction that can occur wherever molecules contain a slightly negatively charged atom bonded to a slightly positively charged hydrogen atom

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4
Q

What is a monomer?

A

A small molecules which binds to many other identical molecules to form a polymer

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5
Q

What is a polymer?

A

A larger molecule made from many smaller molecules called monomers

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6
Q

What is a covalent bond?

A

A bond formed by sharing electrons with other atoms outermost shell

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7
Q

What elements are in carbohydrates?

A

C, H, O

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8
Q

What are the polymer and monomers of carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharides and polysaccharides

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9
Q

What elements do proteins consist of?

A

C, H, O, N, S

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10
Q

What are the monomers and polymers proteins

A

Amino acids and polypeptides

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11
Q

What elements does nuclei acid consist of?

A

C, H, O, N, P

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12
Q

What are the monomers and polymers of nuclei acid?

A

Nucleotides and DNA/ RNA

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13
Q

Liquid

A
  • water molecules are constantly moving and making and breaking hydrogen bonds
  • water is a liquid at room temperature temperature
  • provides habitats for living things
  • major component of tissues in living organisms
  • transport medium
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14
Q

Density

A
  • ice is less dense than water so it floats
  • stable environment for organisms to live in
  • layer of ice reduces the rate of heat loss
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15
Q

Solvent

A
  • good solvent for many substance
  • water is polar so can cluster around charged particles and separate them to dissolve
  • molecules and ions can be transported around living things whilst dissolved
  • many reactions happen in the cytoplasm which is 70% water
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16
Q

Cohesion and surface tension

A
  • hydrogen bonding between molecules pulls them together
  • water molecules on the top of the water are more atracted to the water molecules below than the air
  • water surface had the ability to resist force applied to it
  • columns of water in xylem
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17
Q

High specific heat capacity

A
  • a lot of energy is required to raise the temperature of water
  • prokaryotes and eukaryotes need stable temperature for enzyme reactions
  • aquatic organisms need stable environment in which to live
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18
Q

High latent heat of vaporisation

A
  • lots of energy is required to make water evaporate
  • water can help cool living things and keep their temperature stable
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19
Q

Reactant

A
  • water is a reactant in many reactions
  • important for digestion and synthesis of large biological molecules
  • used in photosynthesis
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20
Q

What are the properties of water?

A
  • Liquid
  • density
  • solvent
  • cohesion and surface tension
  • reactant
  • high SHC
  • high LHV
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21
Q

What are carbohydrates?

A
  • source of energy
  • store of energy
  • structural units
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22
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A
  • simplest carbohydrate
  • source of energy
  • soluble in polar solvents
  • alpha and beta glucose
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23
Q

What are disaccharides?

A

2 monosaccharides bonded together with glycosidic bonds

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24
Q

What are reducing sugars?

A
  • maltose
  • lactose
  • glucose
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25
Q

What are non reducing sugars?

A

Sucrose

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26
Q

a glucose + a glucose = ?

A

maltose

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27
Q

a glucose + fructose = ?

A

sucrose

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28
Q

b glucose + a glucose = ?

A

lactose

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29
Q

b glucose + b glucose = ?

A

cellulose

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30
Q

What are two forms of carbohydrates?

A

Glucose and ribose

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31
Q

What is a glycosidic bond?

A

A covalent body formed when two carbohydrates molecules are joined together by a condensation reaction

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32
Q

What are the three polysaccharides?

A

Glycogen, starch and cellulose

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33
Q

What is a homopolysaccharide

A

A polysaccharides consisting of one type of monomers

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34
Q

What is a heteropolysaccharide?

A

A polysaccharides that consists of multiple types of monomer

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35
Q

Starch

A
  • consists of 2 polysaccharides
  • consists of amylose and amylopectin
  • storage in plants
  • insoluble
  • stored as starch grains in plastids
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36
Q

Amylose

A
  • chain of alpha glucose
  • 1-4 glycosidic bonds
  • coiled
  • more soluble than amylopectin
  • H bonds keep the coiled shape
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37
Q

Amylopectin

A
  • chain of alpha glucose
  • coiled with branches
  • 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds
  • branches allow glucose to be released quickly
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38
Q

Glycogen

A
  • main storage material in animals
  • coiled a glucose chain and with branches
  • 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds
  • stoked as small granules in the liver and muscles
  • less dense and more soluble than starch
  • broken down faster as animals have higher metabolic rate
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39
Q

Cellulose

A
  • b glucose molecules
  • unbranded chain
  • adjacent molecules are alternatingly flipped over 180 degrees
  • 1-2 glycosidic bonds
  • linked by hydrogen bonds to form microfibrils
  • microfibrils are cross linked to form microfibres
  • forms cell walls in plants
  • tough, insoluble and fibrous
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40
Q

What is a lipid?

A
  • A group of substances that are soluble in alcohol rather than water (triglycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol)
  • insoluble
  • non polar
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41
Q

What is a macromolecule?

A

A very large organic molecule

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42
Q

What is a phospholipid?

A

Molecule consisting of glycerol, two fatty acids and one phosphate group

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43
Q

What is a triglyceride?

A

Molecule consisting of a glycerol and three fatty acids

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44
Q

What does glycerol consist of?

A

Three carbon atoms with three OH groups attached to them

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45
Q

What do fatty acids contain?

A
  • carboxyl acid group
  • hydrocarbon tail
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46
Q

What does it mean if a fatty acid is unsaturated?

A

They contain a carbon to carbon double bond

47
Q

What does it mean if a fatty acid is polyunsaturated?

A

They contain multiple a carbon to carbon double bond

48
Q

What kind of bond forms between a fatty acid and a glycerol?

A

Ester bond

49
Q

What are the functions of triglycerides?

A
  • energy store
  • energy source
  • insulation
  • buoyancy
  • protection
50
Q

Describe the role of triglycerides in pprotection

A

Humans have fat around delicate organs to act as a shock absorber

51
Q

Describe the role of triglycerides in buoyancy

A

Fat is less dense than water so aquatic animals can use it to help them stay afloat

52
Q

Describe the role of triglycerides in insulation

A

Blubber is a storage location for lipids in whales which acts ans an insulator but it also acts as an electrical insulator on nerve cells

53
Q

Describe the role of triglycerides in energy store

A

Since they are insoluble they dont affect water potential and also due to a higher proportion of hydrogen they also release more energy

54
Q

How does a phospholipid act in water?

A
  • the phosphate head is polar so it forms H bonds with water making it hydrophilic
  • the fatty acid tail is non polar so it is not attracted to water making it hydrophobic
55
Q

What two lipids can phospholipids create?

A

micelles and phospholipid bilayers

56
Q

How is a phospholipid bilayer formed?

A

The hydrophilic heads start to form h bonds with the water and the hydrophobic tails stat to turn in towards eachother as they are repelled by the water forming a phospholipid bilayer

57
Q

What are some characteristics of a phospholipid bilayer?

A
  • each phospholipid is free to move around
  • the membranes are selectively permeable
58
Q

What substances can pass through a phospholipid bilayer?

A

Small and non polar molecules

59
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

A steroid alcohol

60
Q

Is cholesterol hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

A

Hydrophobic

61
Q

What does cholesterol do?

A

It regulates membrane fluidity

62
Q

How does cholesterol regulate membrane fluidity?

A
  • in hot temperatures it binds to the fatty acid tails to pack them closely together to reduce fluidity
  • in low temperatures it spaces the fatty acid tails apart to increase fluidity
63
Q

What is a peptide bond?

A

The covalent bond formed when two amino acids are joined by a condensation reaction

64
Q

What is the structure of an amino acid?

A

It contains an amino group, a carboxyl group, an R group and a H all attached to a central carbon

65
Q

How many amino acids are there?

A

Over 500

66
Q

How many amino acids are proteinogenic?

A

20

67
Q

What do enzymes do to proteins?

A

Catalyse the hydrolysis of peptide bonds

68
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein?

A

The order of amino acids in a molecule

69
Q

What is the secondary structure of a protein?

A

The coiling or folding of a polypeptide chain forming an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet

70
Q

What is the tertiary structure of a protein?

A

The 3D shape of a protein molecule when the coils and the pleats themselves start to fold

71
Q

What is the quaternary structure of a protein?

A

When the protein structure consists of multiple polypeptide bonds

72
Q

What types of bonds are found in the primary structure?

A

Peptide bonds

73
Q

What types of bonds are found in the secondary structure?

A

Hydrogen bonds

74
Q

What types of bonds are found in the tertiary structure?

A

Hydrogen, ionic, disulfide bonds and hydrophobic interactions

75
Q

What types of bonds are found in the quaternary structure?

A

Disulfide bonds and non covalent bonds (hydrophobic and london forces)

76
Q

What is a fibrous protein?

A

A protein that has a relatively long, thin structure, is insoluble and metabolically inactive

77
Q

What is a globular protein?

A

A protein that has a relatively spherical shape, is soluble and often have metabolic roles

78
Q

What is a conjugated protein?

A

A globular protein that contains a prosthetic group

79
Q

How is haemoglobins shape sepcific to its function?

A
  • its function is transport
  • it consist of 4 polypeptide chains (2 x a globin, 2 x b globin)
  • conjugated, 4 haem groups which contain iron
  • 1 oxygen binds to each haem group
80
Q

How is insulins shape specific to its function?

A
  • its function is as a hormone
  • consist of 2 polypeptide chains (a helix, b pleated sheet)
  • chains joined by disulfide bridges
  • specifically binds to insulin receptors
  • hydrophilic R groups so can dissolve in the blood
81
Q

How is pepsins shape specific to its function?

A
  • its function is as an enzyme
  • single polypeptide chain
  • catalyses digestion of proteins
  • found in the acidic conditions of the stomach
  • primary structure with very few basic R groups
  • not affected by H+ ions
  • held by strong hydrogen and disulfide bonds
82
Q

What are the three globular proteins you should know about?

A

Haemoglobin, insulin and pepsin

83
Q

How is collagens shape specific to its function?

A
  • its function is to provide mechanical strength and allow structures to withstand high pressure
  • it consists of parallel polypeptide chains with covalent cross links
  • this means the polypeptide chains have staggered ends and lots of hydrogen bonds
  • making it very stong and suitable as a connective tissue
84
Q

How is keratins shape specific to its function?

A
  • its function is mechanical protection
  • it does this by making up nails, claws, hair, fur and feathers
  • rich in cystein so has many disulfide bridges
  • it is insoluble and very strong
  • it creates an impermeable barrier to infections and water borne pollutants
85
Q

How is elastins shape specific to its function?

A
  • it allows structures to stretch and return back to their original shape
  • it can be found in the skin, lungs and blood vessels
  • cross linking and coiling allows the structures to adapt their shape
  • it does so by being very strong and extensible
86
Q

What is the function of calcium?

A
  • Ca+2
  • increase rigidity of bone, teeth and cartilage
  • important in clotting blood
  • stimulates muscle contraction
  • regulates permeability of cell membranes
87
Q

What is the function of sodium?

A
  • Na+
  • involved in regulation of osmotic pressure
  • affects absorption of carbs in the intestine
  • contributes to nervous transmission
88
Q

What is the function of potassium?

A
  • K+
  • involved in control of water levels in body fluid
  • assists in active transport across the cell membrane
  • involved in the synthesis of glycogen and protein
89
Q

What is the function of hydrogen?

A
  • H+
  • involved in photosynthesis and respiration
  • involved in regulation of blood PH
  • involved in transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
90
Q

What is the function of ammonium?

A
  • NH4+
  • component of amino acids
  • essencial component of nucleic acids
  • involved in maintenance of body PH
  • component of the nitrogen cycle
91
Q

What is the function of nitrate?

A
  • NO3-
  • component of amino acids
  • essential component of nucleic acids
  • component of the nitrogen cycle
92
Q

What is the function of hydrogencarbonate?

A
  • HCO3-
  • involved in regulation of blood PH
  • involved in transport of carbon dioxide in and out of the blood
93
Q

What is the function of chloride?

A
  • Cl-
  • helps with the production of urine
  • involved in transport of carbon dioxide in and out of the blood
  • involved in regulation of blood PH
  • used to produce hydrochloric acid in the stomach
94
Q

What is the function of phosphate?

A
  • PO4-3
  • increases rigidity of bone, teeth and cartilage
  • involved in regulation of blood PH
  • helps root growth in plants
  • component of ATP, nucleic acids and phospholipids
95
Q

What is the function of hydroxide?

A
  • OH-
  • involved in regulation of blood PH
96
Q

How do you test for reducing sugars?

A

Using benidicts solution

97
Q

How do you test for non-reducing sugars?

A

Using benidicts solution and also boiling the samples in HCl

98
Q

How do you test for carbohydrates (starch)

A

Using iodine solution

99
Q

How do you test for lipids?

A

Using the emulsion test

100
Q

How do you test for proteins?

A

Using the biuret solution

101
Q

How do you carry out a test for reducing sugars?

A
  • heat a reducing sugar with benidicts solution
  • will turn from blue to brick red
  • if benidicts solution is in excess the intensity of the colour is proportional to the conc. of the colour
102
Q

How do you carry out a test for non-reducing sugars?

A
  • first test the sample to check there are none in the first place
  • boil the sample with hydrochloric acid
  • cool the sample
  • neutralise it with sodium hydrogencarbonate
  • heat with benidicts solution
103
Q

How do you carry out a test for carbohydrates (starch)?

A
  • add iodine solution to the sample in a white drop tile
  • if starch is present the colour will change from brown to blue/black
104
Q

How do you carry out a test for lipids?

A
  • mix the sample thorougly with ethanol
  • filter out the solution
  • pour the solution into a clean test tube filled with water
  • mix the solution
  • if the solution turns cloudy, lipids are present
105
Q

How do you carry out a test for proteins?

A
  • add biuret solution to the sample in a white drop tile
  • if protein is present the colour will change from blue to lilac
106
Q

What are the qualitatative tests?

A

The tests for starch, lipids, proteins, reducung and non-reducing sugars

107
Q

What is the quantitative test?

A

The test for reducing sugars

108
Q

How do you do a quantitative test for reducing sugars?

A
  • take a series of know concentrations of a reducing sugar
  • carry out the benidicts test on each sample
  • use the colorimeter to record the percentage transmission of each sample (red filter)
  • plot these results on a graph
  • test the unknown concentration, place it in the colourimeter and compare its result to the graph
109
Q

What is the equation to find the Rf value?

A

Rf=pigment spot/solvent front

110
Q

What is the aim of chromatography?

A

To separate a mixture into its constituents

111
Q

What is the stationary phase in chromatography?

A

The chromatography paper or the thin layer chromatography (TLC)

112
Q

What is the mobile phase in chromatography?

A

The solvent for the biological molecules

113
Q

How do you carry out a chromatography test?

A
  • on the chromatography paper draw a line in pencil and a dot at the bottom to show where you will place your solution mixture
  • spot the solution mixture onto the pencil dot several times using a capillary tube
  • wait for the spot to dry before putting the next one on, the spot should be as thin as possible
  • lower the paper into the solvent where it should reach below the pencil line
  • cover the beaker with a glass plate
  • let the apparatus run until he solvent has nearly reached the top then lay on a white tile to dry
113
Q

If the results of chromatography are colourless what are the solutions?

A
  • UV light - the TLC will glow except the places where the spots have reached
  • ninhydrin - to see amino acids spray it with ninhydrin and allow to dry, showing purple spots
  • iodine - place in enclosed container with iodine crystals so the iodine gas binds to the molecules in each spot

Bio Module 2 (6 decks)

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