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Biology summary flashcards component 1 > Biological molecules > Flashcards

Biological molecules Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are inorganic ions

A
  • variety of inorganic ions required for many cellular proceses
  • eg muscle contraction and nervous coordination
  • also known as electrolytes
  • some needed in minute amunts (micronutrients0 eg zinc and others in small amounts (macronutriens)
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2
Q

What is the role of magnesium ions

A
  • consituent in chlorphyll
  • needed for photosynthesis
  • when lacking leaves appear yellow (chlorosis)
  • as well stunted growth
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3
Q

What is the role of Iron II ions

A
  • constituent of haemoglobin
  • involved in transport of oxygen
  • lack of iron in diet lead to aneamia
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4
Q

What is the role of calcium ions

A
  • structural componeneet of bones and teeth
  • phophate also required
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5
Q

What is the role of phosphate ions

A
  • needed to make nucleotides including ATP
  • constituent of phospholipids and membrane
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6
Q

Describe water

A
  • vital to life allow important reaction to take place and forms a habitat
  • many of it’s properties because it’s a dipolar molecule
  • positivley charged end (hydrogen) and negativley charged end (oxygen) an no overall charge
  • hydrogen bonds from between hydrogen on one molecule and oxyygen on another
  • although individullay weak collectlivley make moleucles difficult to seperate from each other
  • excellent olvent due to dipolar nature attract charged particles on other polar molecules allowing them to dissolve
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7
Q

How is water a good solvent

A
  • involved in many biochemical reactions eg hydrolysis and condensation
  • allow polar molecules eg glucose and ions to dissolve
  • acts a a transort medium eg blood
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8
Q

How does water have a high specific heat capacity

A
  • large amount of heat energy needed to increase temperature of a body of water (large number of hydrogen bonds needed to be broken)
  • large fluctation in temperature are prevented
  • aquatoc habitats are relativley thermally stable
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9
Q

How does water have a high latent heat of vaporisation

A
  • large amount of heat energy needed to vapourise water
  • often used as a cooling mechanism
  • eg sweatig in mammals
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10
Q

How is water a good metabolite

A
  • involved in many biochemical reaction
  • eg hydrolyis and condensation
  • reactant in photosynthesis
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11
Q

How does water have high cohesion

A
  • water molecules attract each other to form hydrogen bonds between themselves
  • allow water to be drawn up xylem vessels of trees and creates surface tension allow insects such as pond skaters to be supported
  • provised support for other aquatic organsisms eg jellyfish
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12
Q

How does water have high density

A
  • maximum density at 4 degrees celcius
  • result ice floats act as inulator prevent water beneath freexing completley
  • protect aquatic habitat
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13
Q

Why is water transparent

A
  • allow light to pass throguh
  • enabling aquatiic plants to photosynthesise
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14
Q

What are carbohydrates

A
  • small organic molecules containing carbon hydrogen and oxygen
  • building blocks for more complex molecules eg ribose a constituent molecule of RNA
  • sources of energy eg glucose and starch
  • structural support eg cellulose and chitin
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15
Q

What are monosaccharides

A
  • sweet tasting and soluble in water
  • single sugar contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
  • (CH20)n n between 3 and 6
  • triose sugar - respiration pathway - 3
  • pentose sugar - ribose and deoxyriobe important consituent of RNA and DNA
  • glucose is a hexose sugar - 6- starting material for respiration and building blocks for glycogen and other polypeptides
  • other hexose sugars are galactose and fructose
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16
Q

What are isomers

A
  • substances with same formular but different structures
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17
Q

What are the two iomer of glucose

A
  • alpha glucose - H on top OH on bottom
  • beta glucose - OH on top and H on the bottom
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18
Q

Wha are disaccharides

A
  • formed by joining two monosaccharides together
  • involve loss of water molecule formation of glycoidic bond via condenation reactions
  • breaking down of disaacharides into monosaccharise involves chemical addition of water know as hydrolysis
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19
Q

What is maltose

A
  • glucose + glucose
  • in germinating seeds
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20
Q

What is sucrose

A
  • glucose + fructose
  • transport in phloem of flowering plants
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21
Q

What is lactose

A
  • glucose + galactose
  • in mammalian milk
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22
Q

What are types of dissacharides

A
  • maltose
  • sucrose
  • lactose
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23
Q

What is the test for reducing sugars

A
  • reducing sugars donate an lectron to reduce blue copper (II) ions present in copper sulfate to red copper (II) oxide
  • equal volume of benedicts reagant (blue) to the solution being testes and strongly heating in a boiling water bath
  • it a reducing sugar ssuch as glucose is present solution will gradually turn form blue to green to yellow to oraange and brick red precipitate forms
  • eg maltose and lactose
  • all monosaccharides and some disaccharides are reducing sugars
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24
Q

What is the test for non reducing sugars

A
  • like sucrose negative test cannot reduce copper (II) ions in copper sulfate to copper (I) oxide
  • heat with hydrochloric acid then neutra;ize by adding alkali slowly until fizzing stops
  • add benedicts reagant and strongly heat as before
  • if solution turns blue to red a non reducing sugar is present
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25
Q

What are polysaccharides

A
  • when monosaccharides combine forming a polymer which is a polysaccharide
  • number of structural molecules are formed
  • composed solely of glucose or in case of chitin glucose with an acetylamine group
  • only different is how glycosidic bonds are formed
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26
Q

Why are polysaccharides good storage molecules

A
  • unable to diffuse out of the cell
  • compact in shape so glucose can be stroed in a cell
  • insoluble in water so does not alter water potential and therefore no osmotic efffect
  • easily hydrolysed into constituent monosacchaides which can be used in respiration with exception of cellulose which is difficult to digest since it a fibrous structure
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27
Q

What is starch

A
  • main energy store in plants found in starch grains
  • most plant cells chloroplasts more commonly in seeds
  • stored as starch until required immediatley for respiration
  • made of many alpha glucse molecules bonded together
  • made of two polymer amylose and amylopectin
28
Q

What is amylose

A
  • linear unbranches glycosidic bonds between C1 and C4 on other molecule referred as 1-4 glycosidic bonds
  • repeat forming straight chain coilds into a single helix held by hydrogen bonds
29
Q

What is amylopectin

A
  • bracnhed molecule fits in amylose
  • 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds
  • when 1-6 bonds form a side branch
  • due to branched structure more exposed ends can be hydrolysed results in more rapid release of glucose
30
Q

What is the test for starch

A
  • iodine solution (iodine dissolved in an aqueous solution of potassium iodide)
  • orange to bluey black
  • unreliable as temperature increase so does collour intensity so indication of concentration not reliable
31
Q

What is glycogen

A
  • main storage products in animals
  • similar to amylopectin but more branched
32
Q

What is cellulose

A
  • structural polysaccharides most abundant molecule as found in plant cell walls
  • beta glucose bonded together by adjacent glucose molecule rotated by 180 degrees forming long straight parallell chains cross linked by hydrogen bonds
  • highly cross linked form bundles microfibrils turning into arranged fibres which are bundles
  • strong
  • gaps make them freely permeable allowing water and solutes to penetragte through cell membrane
33
Q

What is chitin

A
  • structural polyaccharides
  • exeskeleton of insects
  • cell wasll of fungi
  • strong, light and waterproof
  • siilar to cellulose
  • long parallel chain of beta glucose (with acetylamine groups) cross linked by hydrogen bonds forming microfibrils due to adjacent glucose molecules rotated by 180
34
Q

What are lipids

A
  • non polar compojds
  • insoluble water
  • contin carbon, hydrogen and less oxygen compared to carbs
35
Q

What are triglycerides

A
  • combination of one glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids via condensation reaction where three molecule of water removes and ester bond formed between glycerol and each fatty acid
36
Q

What are unsaturated and saturated fats and identify the states

A
  • differences in fats and oils variation in fatty acids
  • hydrocarbon chain no C-C double bonds then fatty acid is saturated as all C atoms linked to possible maximum H
  • these dats are semi solid at room temp useful troage of fats in mammals
  • high intake of saturatedd fats factore of heart disease
  • animal lipids are often saturated whereas plants are unsaturated and occurs as oild
  • when one C=C bond present referred as monounsaturated
  • many C=C bonds polyunsaturated
  • where bond is double chain may kink
37
Q

What are waxes

A
  • melt at temperatures above 45 degree celcius
  • waterproofing in anima;s and plants eg leaf cuticle
38
Q

What are the roles of lipids

A
  • structure of plasma membranes
  • mylein sheath that surround neurones
  • presence in myelein increases speed at which nerve impulse prporgate along neurone
39
Q

how are fats energy reserves

A
  • lipids are excellent energy reserves in both animals and plants
  • contain C-H bonds more than carbs
  • one gram of fat when oxidised ueiles twice as much energy as the same mas of the carb
40
Q

How do fats help with thermal insulation

A
  • stored under skin
  • acts as an inuslator against heat loss
41
Q

How do fats help with protection

A
  • stored around delicate internal organs (fats)
  • eg kidneys protection against physical damage
42
Q

How do fats help produce metabolic water

A
  • triglyceirde produce a lot of metabolic water when oxidised
  • important in deert animals survive on metabolic water from respiration of its fat intake
43
Q

How do fats help with waterproofing

A
  • fats are insoluble in water and important in land organisms such as inect where waxy cuticle cuts down watrer loss
  • water loss is then only usually posible via stomata through transpirtation
44
Q

What is the test for lipids

A
  • lipids emulsion tet
  • sample mixed with ethanol to dissolve any lipids present
  • then sample shaken with equal amount of water
  • insoluble in water so lipids fall out causing cloudy emulsion
45
Q

What are phospholipids

A
  • fatty acid tail replaces by phosphate group
  • molecule where one end is soluble in water and other is not
  • fatty acid part is non polar and inssoluble in water so referred as hydrophobic
  • glycerol part and phosphate froup are polar and dissolve in water so hydrophillic
  • important formation and functioning of plasma membrane in cells
46
Q

What are implicationss of saturated fats on human health

A
  • athersclorosis build up fatty deposits of plaques called atheromas within artery walls
  • low density lipoproteinss (LDL) from diet high in saturated fats
  • lead to narrowing of arteries
  • loe elasticity restrict blood flow limits oxygen delivery to the heart result in angina eventually a heart attack
  • atheroma cause endothelial lining to rupture causes clot to form caussing tokes
  • dietss high in unsaturated fats combined with excercies reult in high density lipoproteins (HDL) which carry harmful fats to liver for disposal
  • higher ration HDL:LDL patients blood loewr risk of cardiovascular disease
47
Q

What are proteins

A
  • large compounds built up of sub units called amino acids
  • 20 amino acids used to make up proteins and order determines protein structure hence its function
  • contain carbon., hydrogen , oxygen, nitrogen and sometime sulphur
  • very larg emolecules consists of long chains of many amino acids joined together polypeptides
48
Q

What do amino acids contain

A
  • amino group
  • carboxyl group
  • variable group - r
  • Hydrogen atom
49
Q

What is the formation of a pepetide bond

A
  • proteins built linear sequence of amino acids
  • condensation reaction between amino group of one acid and carboxyl group of another
  • eleminating water
  • bond formed is a peptide bond
50
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein

A
  • order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
  • determines by DNA sequence on one strand of DNA molecule
51
Q

What is the secondary structure of a protein

A
  • involves folding of primary structure into a 3D shape held by hydrogen bonds between =O annd on - COOH and H on NH2 groups
  • create an alpha helix and Beta plaeated sheet
52
Q

What is the teritiay structure of a protein

A
  • forms from folding of alpha helix into a more complex shape
  • disulphide bridges
  • hydrogen bonds
  • hydrophobic interactions
  • globular proteins their shape
53
Q

What is the quantenary structure of a protein

A
  • combination of two or more polypeptides chains in tertiary form combined
  • non protein group
  • large complex molecules eg haemolglobin
54
Q

What are the roles of proteins

A
  • depend on molecular shape
  • fibrous and lobular proteins
55
Q

What are fibrous proteins

A
  • structural functions
  • polypeptides in parallel chains or sheets with cross linkages to form long fibred eg keratin
  • insoluble in water
  • stong and tough
  • collagen provides tough properties needed in tendones
  • a ssingle fivre consists of three polypeptide chain twisted around like a rose linked by cross bridges making it a very stable molecule
56
Q

What are globular proteins

A
  • variety of different functions - enzymes , anitbodies, plasma proteins and some are hormones eg insulin
  • proteins are compact and folded as spherical molecules
  • soluble in water
  • haemoglobin conists of four folded polypeptide chainsa t centre of which is an iron containing group called haem
  • each protein is unique and has a specific shape
57
Q

What is the test for proteins

A
  • few drops of biuret
  • prescence of protein shown by a colour change from blue to purple
58
Q

Condensation

A
  • the removal of a water molecule and the formation of a covalent bond between two biochemical groups
59
Q

Hydrolysis

A
  • the breaking down of large molecules into smaller ones by the addition of a molecule of water
60
Q

Dipolar

A
  • a polar molecule with a positive and negative charge
61
Q

Hydrogen bond

A

weak attractive force between a postivley charges hydrogen atom and a negativley charges oxygen or nitrogen atom

62
Q

Isomer

A
  • molecules with the same chemical formular but with a different arrangement of atoms
63
Q

Polymer

A
  • a large molecule made up of many repeating units (monomers) bonded together
64
Q

Hydrophobic

A
  • water hating ie cannot interact with water due to the lack of any charge on the molecule
65
Q

Hydrophillic

A

water loving can interact with water due to the presecence of chanrge on the molecule

Biology summary flashcards component 1 (11 decks)

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