Biol/Biochem Flashcards
1
Q
What causes the hemoglobin curve to shift to the right? (Bohr effect)
A
Decreased pH or increased CO2
2
Q
How is mitochondria passed down?
A
Through the maternal line (non-Mendelian inheritance pattern)
3
Q
How is mitochondrial DNA different than nuclear DNA?
A
Mitochondrial DNA is circular and not enclosed by a nuclear membrane. Mitochondiral DNA does not have introns or exons
4
Q
What ion is muscle contraction dependent upon?
A
Ca2+ ions
5
Q
What does the neural crest derive from?
A
The ectoderm
6
Q
What does the ectoderm give rise to?
A
Nervous system, epidermis, lens of eye, inner ear
7
Q
What does endoderm give rise to?
A
Lining of digestive tract, lungs, liver and pancreas (gut)
8
Q
What does mesoderm give rise to?
A
Muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, gonads, kidney
9
Q
What do Scwann cells produce?
A
The myelin sheath around neuronal axons
10
Q
What is gastrulation?
A
Process of blastula reorganizing into ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm (gastrula)
11
Q
How many hydrogen bonds do A-T and C-G bonds forms
A
A-T = 2 hydrogen bondsC-G = 3 hydrogen bonds
12
Q
Is denaturation endothermic or exothermic?
A
Endothermic because you must provide energy to break down bonds
13
Q
Centrioles are made up of what?
A
Microtubules
14
Q
Centrosomes are made up of what?
A
Centrioles
15
Q
What are centromeres?
A
Where microtubules attach to chromosomes
16
Q
What is the difference between introns and exons?
A
introns are non-coding regions, exons are encoding regions (expressed regions)
17
Q
What part of the nephron deals with filtration?
A
The glomerulus deals with filtration
18
Q
What is blastulation?
A
Formation of a blastula - single layered sphere of cells with a fluid cavity
19
Q
What bonds exist between glycogen? Cellulose? Chitin?
A
Glycogen/glucose = alpha-1,4 glycosidic linkagesChitin/cellulose = beta-1,4 glycosidic linkages
20
Q
Explain how blood flows through the circulatory system
A
One artery connected to several arterioles which each connects to thousands of capillaries
21
Q
Strong acids have _____ conjugate bases
A
Strong acids have weak conjugate bases
22
Q
What is mutarotation
A
Mutarotation is the change in optical rotation because of change between two anomers
23
Q
What is the difference between primary active transport and secondary active transport?
A
Primary active transport uses ATP directly
Secondary active transport uses concentration gradients for energy
24
Q
What is an autosome? How many chromosomes does it have relatively?
A
Autosome is a chromosome that is not a sex chromsomomeIt has double the chromosomes of a sex cell (it is diploid)
25
Describe commensalism
When one species benefits and the other is unaffected
26
List the 3 stop codons
UAA, UAG, & UGA
27
What is tidal volume
Normal volume of air displaced between inhalation and exhalation when extra effort is not usedTidal volume can change at higher altitudes!
28
What is the formula for osmotic pressure
pi = iMRT
29
Does hemoglobin follow Michealis-Menten kinetics?
No because it is allosteric (has sigmoidal plot)
30
What cells produce insulin?
Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
31
What is induction?
Induction is the ability of one cell or tissue to direct the development of neighboring cells or tissues
32
What are the differences between conjugation, transduction and transformation?
Conjugation is the temporary direct contact between two bacterial cells leading to an exchange of genetic material (DNA)Transduction is the transfer of genetic material to a bacteria by a bacteriophageTransformation is when bacteria pick up genetic material from their environment
33
What does DNA polymerase do?
Builds DNA by assembling nucleotides
34
What does topoisomerase do?
Enzymes that regulate the winding or unwinding of DNA
35
What does primase do?
Primase synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers. These primers serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis
36
What does DNA ligase do?
DNA ligase facilitates the joining of DNA strands by catalyzing the formation of a phosphodiester bond
37
What does the hypothalamus deal with?
Homeostasis
38
What does the sodium potassium pump do?
Pumps out 3 Na ionsPumps in 2 K ions
39
List the stages of action potential and approximate voltages
Rest = -70mVDepolarization = +35 mV (Na ions rush into cell)Repolarization = back to -70 mV (K ions are sent out of cell)Hyperpolarization = less than -70 mV
40
How does aldosterone affect blood pressure?
Aldosterone raises blood pressure by promoting the reabsorption of Na+, which leads to water retention
41
What triggers ovulation?
LH surge
42
What is the purpose of a poly-A tail?
To protect the mRNA after transcription as it leaves the nucleus
43
What do gluconeogenesis activated by?
Glucagon
44
What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis in regards to chromosome number?
Both start as diploids (46 chromosomes)
Meiosis ends with 4 haploid cells (23 chromosomes)
Mitosis ends with 2 diploid cells (46 chromosomes)
45
What is the difference between euchromatin and heterochromatin?
Heterochromatin is dense and not transcriptionally active Euchromatin is less dense and transcriptionally active
46
What is glycogenesis activated by?
Insulin
47
What does gluconeogenesis do?
Generates glucose when blood sugar is low
48
What does glycogenesis do?
Generates glycogen when blood glucose is high
49
What organelles do red blood cells possess?
Red blood cells lack most organelles
50
What is the difference between expressivity and penetrance?
Expressivity = measure of severity of a disease
Penetrance = measure of number of persons with with allele for a condition that display that condition
51
What is the difference in function between a peroxisome and a lysosome?
Lysosome = have digestive enzymes that break down substances into small molecules
Peroxisome = degrade long chain fatty acids (beta oxidation)
52
What is the function of dna methylation?
Dna methylation acts to repress gene transcription
53
Which regions of antibodies are involved in antigen binding?
The variable region of the light chain and the variable region of the dark chain
54
How are DNA probes related to specific DNA of interest?
DNA probes are complementary to specific DNA strand of interest so they can hybridize (link) with them
55
What does tRNA do?
Serves as the physical link between mRNA and amino acid sequence of proteins
tRNA is non-coding
56
What is the function of the loop of henle?
Reabsorb ions
57
What is the difference between germ cells and somatic cells?
Germ cell = cells responsible for reproduction
Somatic cells = skin, muscle,blood cells (everything not associated with reproduction)
58
What does insulin do?
Lowers blood glucose levels
59
What is a key difference between meiosis and mitosis?
The splitting of centromeres
60
How does decreased blood pressure affect reabsorption in the loop of henle?
Decreased blood pressure leads to decreased glomerular filtration rate which increases reabsorption because blood spends more time in loop of henle
61
Parathyroid hormone activate osteoclasts. How do osteoclasts affect blood plasma?
Calcium in the blood plasma increases
62
Which organ breaks down glycogen?
The liver
63
How do unsaturated fatty acids affect membrane fluidity?
They make membranes more fluid
64
Why are peptide bonds stable?
Resonance
65
What are examples of a few carboxylic acid derivatives?
Amide, ester, acyl chloride, acid anhydride
66
What is hybridization?
Hybridization is binding through complementary nucleotides
67
What is genetic drift?
What is founder effect?
What is gene flow?
Genetic drift = change in allele frequency in a population due to random sampling
Founder effect = loss of genetic diversity when a new population is founded with a small population
Gene flow = movement of alleles between local populations - adds to genetic diversity
68
What is the difference between single crossovers and double crossover
Single crossovers can only affect the ends of chromosome arms while double crossovers can affect segments in the middle of chromosome arms.
Both single and double crossovers only affect one arm of each chromosome
69
The troponin complex functions in contraction of which types of muscle?
Skeletal and cardiac
70
What is the difference between trans and cis fatty acids
Trans are straight
Cis are bent
71
Why do peptide bonds possess partial double bond character?
Because of delocalization of electron density from peptide nitrogen through the peptide carbonyl carbon and onto the peptide carbonyl oxygen
72
What is the general function of insulin (besides lowering blood glucose levels)?
Insulin causes the body to build up large molecules to store energy, and stop the body from breaking down large molecules to provide energy
73
How can you recognize oxidation in a chemical reaction?
Adding an oxygen molecule, adding a double bond to an oxygen molecule, and adding a double bond between two carbon atoms
74
Are fungi eukaryotes or prokaryotes
Eukaryotes - therefore they have membrane bound organelles
75
What is a southern blot used for?
Detection of DNA fragments (SNOW DROP)
76
What is a western blot used for?
Amino acid sequences in proteins (SNOW DROP)
77
What a northern blot used for?
RNA (SNOW DROP)
78
What does a kinase do?
Adds a phosphate group with ATP
79
What does a phosphorylase do?
Adds a phosphate group without ATP
80
What does a phosphatase do?
Removes a phosphate group
81
What does a synthase do?
Creates a new molecules without energy input (ATP_
82
What does a synthesase do?
Creates a new molecule with energy input (ATP)
83
Where does blood flow to during sympathetic activation?
Blood flows to the brain and to the skeletal muscles
84
What is the function of microtubules?
Microbtubules are involved in Mitosis and Meiosis (connect kinetochores to chromosomes)
85
What is the function of microfilaments?
Involved with actin [filaments]
86
What is the function of intermediate filaments?
Involved in cytoskeletal components
87
Which three amino acids are most often phosphorylated?
Serine, threonine, tyrosine (all have hydroxyl groups)
88
What letters denote enantiomers?
Epimers?
Enantiomers = R & S
Epimers = alpha & beta
89
When will a DNA sequence have a noticeable mutation in a southern blot?
When a palindrome is disrupted, or a stop codon is created (UAA, UGA, UAG)
90
What kind of receptor does acetylcholine have?
Ligand-gated receptor
91
How are action potentials triggered in muscle fibers?
Influx of Na+ ions across the motor end plate, after Na+ channels bind the ligand acetylcholine
92
In DNA, what is phosphorous bonded to?
Only oxygen!
93
What is the process of creating a protein from coding DNA?
DNA Coding (TCA) --> DNA template (AGT) --> mRNA (UCA) --> protein
94
What is the process of creating a protein in a retrovirus?
RNA --> DNA --> RNA --> viral protein
95
Glutamate and Aspartate are synonyms for what?
Glutamic acid & Aspartic Acid
96
What is the average molecular weight of an amino acid?
110 Da
97
Reducing SDS page does what?
Breaks quaternary structure and disulfide bonds
98
Can isoforms have different combinations of exons?
Yes
99
Where does most reabsorption take place in the nephron?
The proximal convoluted tubule
100
The descending loop of henle is permeable for what?
Water (water is reabsorbed)
101
The ascending loop of henle is permeable for what?
Sodium ions (Na+ is reabsorbed)
102
What does the hill coefficient deal with?.What does a hill coefficient greater than 1 mean?
Cooperativity.
Coefficient greater than 1 means the enzyme exhibits cooperativity
103
What amino acid contains an amide group?
Glutamine
104
The posterior pituitary secretes what hormones?
Aldosterone (vasopressin) & oxytocin
105
What is an isoform?
Proteins with different (but similar) exons expressed
106
What is isoelectric focusing based on?
Estabishing a pH gradient, so proteins can be separated based on pI (charge is zero)
107
What kind of cells are ovarian cells?
Epithelial cells
108
How does Ka related to Kd?
Higher Ka (affinity) = lower Kd (dissociation)
109
What is the main difference between peptide hormones and steroid hormones?
Peptide hormones are hydrophilic, steroid hormones are hydrophobic
110
What do phosphodiester bonds do?
Link adjacent nucleotides in DNA
111
What types of bonds contribute to stability of tertiary structure?
Salt bridges, disulfide bonds, and hydrogen bonds
112
What is the difference between noncompetitive inhibition and uncompetitive inhibition?
Noncompetetive change Vmax, uncompetitive changes Vmax and Km (does not alter slope)
113
How can you increase uncompetitive inhibition?
increase inhibitor concentration and increase substrate concentration (uncompetetive inhibitors only bind to E-S complex)
114
What does a competitive inhibitor bind to?
What does an uncompetitive inhibitor bind to?
Competitive = E
Uncompetitive = ES complex
115
What is cytochrome c involved in?
The electron transport chain
116
What mechanism is neccesary for expression of certain genes?
Nuclear factors
117
What biochemical methods separate based on charge?
Isoelectric focusing & Ion-exchange chromatography
*SDS-PAGE does NOT separate based on charge
118
What is pi-stacking?
pi stacking refers to attractive, noncovalent interactions between AROMATIC rings, since they contain pi bonds.
119
What is an example of a ketohexose?
Fructose
120
What is the rate-limiting enzyme of glycolysis?
Phosphofructokinae-1 (PFK-1)
121
What is the rate-limiting enzyme of fermentation?
Lactate dehydrogenase
122
What is the rate-limiting enzyme of glycogensis?
Glycogen synthase
123
What is the rate-limiting enzyme of glyocenolysis?
Glycogen phosphorylase
124
What is the rate-limiting enzyme of gluconeogenesis?
fructose-1,6-biphosphate
125
What is the rate-limiting enzyme of pentose phosphate pathway?
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
126
What are the irreversible steps of glycolysis?
How glycolysis pushes poop
Hexokinase
Glucokinase
PFK-1
Pyruvate Kinase
127
Which amino acid causes kinks?
Proline (disrupts alpha-helices)
128
What are the steps of the citric acid cycle?
can I Keep selling Sex for Money officer?
```
citrate
Isocitrate
alpha-ketoglutarate
succinyl coA
succinate
fumarate
Maltate
oxaloacetate
```
129
After what steps are NADH produced?
FADH?
NADH is produced after isocitrate, a-ketoglutarate, and maltate
FADH is produced after succinate
130
What is the equation for breathing equilibrium?
What are the acids and bases for the equation?
H+ + HCO3- = H2CO3 = CO2 + H2O
```
CO2 = acid
HCO3- = base!!!
```
131
When the lung are malfunctioning, creating respiratory alkalosis/acidosis, what organ responds?
The kidneys respond
132
What direction is mRNA synthesized?
5' --> 3'
133
What does calcitonin activate?
What does PTH activate?
Calcitonin = osteoblasts
PTH = osteoclasts
134
What is the difference between sertoli and leydig cells?
Sertoli = pepperoni = nourish sperm
Leydig = secrete testosterone (ladies dig bid larynx & penis)
135
Peptide chains are written in what direction?
N-terminus to C-terminus
136
What charge is histidine at pH 7?
Histidine is uncharged at pH 7
137
How will hypersecretion of aldosterone influence renine?
High aldosterone levels will negatively feedback and inhibit renin production
138
How does aldosterone affect Na+ and K+ concentrations?
Aldosterone increases Na+ concentration (and therefore increasing blood pressure)
Aldosterone decreases K+ concentration
139
What do lysogenic viruses do?
Lysogenic viruses alter nuclear DNA (to produce viruses
140
What kind of relationship exists for 1st order reactions?
Linear relationships (at low concentrations)
141
What are the steps to the cell cycle?
M = mitosis
G1 or G0
G0 = programmed state of arrest
G1=cellular components (not chromosomes are duplicated) checkpoint
S = synthesis of chromosomes
G2 = double check chromosomes, checkpoint
Then back to mitosis
142
How does oxidative phosphorylation produce ATP?
ATP synthase using proton gradient
143
In gel electrophoresis, where does molecules migrate to?
Molecules migrate to the anode (positive)
144
What kind of solvents do SN1 reaction use?
SN2?
SN1 = protic solvents
SN2 = polar aprotic solvents (acetone, DMSO)
145
What is an antisense strand?
Antisense strands are complementary to sense strands
i.e DNA coding strand = sense
DNA template strand = antisense
146
How do you ensure that an antisense mRNA strand used to inhibit a sense strand will work?
They must be transcribed at the same time. Otherwise the sense mRNA will be translated (because nothing is bound to it)
147
What parts of glucose metabolism are anaerobic?
Glycolysis is anaerobic
Fermentation is also anaerobic (obviously)
148
Where are proteins made in a cell?
In ribosomes (which are attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum)
Once, translated, proteins are transported by the Golgi apparatus
149
What is an antigen?
Something that elicits an immune response
150
Does RNA contain introns?
No
151
When are introns removed?
Introns are removed right after transcription (formation of mRNA from pre-mRNA)
152
Do bacteria possess introns?
No
153
What kind of electron carrier does cytochrome c act as during the ETC?
A 1-electron carrier
154
What kinds of kind of base pairs are most suitable for PCR?
CG base pairs
155
What is nondisjunction?
Failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis (anaphase I specifically)
156
Are telomeres or centromeres transcriptionally active?
No
157
What kind of cells are rods and cones?
Where are they located
Rods and cones are photoreceptor cells
They are located in the retina (rods in periphery, cones in fovea)
158
Where does glycolysis take place?
The cytoplasm
159
Where does krebs cycle and pyruvate dehydrogenase take place?
The mitochondrial matrix
160
Where does the electron transport chain take place?
The mitochondrial membrane
161
How many electrons does coenzyme Q carry?
Coenzyme q carries 2 electrons
162
How can you tell when something has higher O2 affinity on hemoglobin saturation curve?
The curve shift LEFT
163
What is the net reaction of Glycolysis
C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ +2pi + 2ADP = 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + 2 NADH + 2H2O +2H+
164
What is the products of pyruvate dehydrogenase
Acteyl coA, CO2, and NADH
| Pyruvate is the substrate
165
How many times does the Krebs cycle go through?
Twice!
166
How does the ETC generate ATP
Redox reactions takes place, where NADH & FADH2 are oxidized (O2 is reduced - as it is terminal electron acceptor)
Transport of electrons through ETC creates proton gradient that provides energy for conversion of ADP to ATP
167
Which way are protons pumped out from the proton gradient created during ETC
Protons are pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix into intermembrane space
168
What is nadph used for?
Lipid and nucleic acid synthesis
169
Which amino acids are ionic?
Amino acids that are charged (usually at pH 7)
170
Collagen, elastin, kertain, actin and tubulin are all what types of proteins?
Structural proteins
171
What are the 3 motor proteins?
Dynein, myosin, kinesin
172
What do Cell adhesion molecules do? (CAM)
Cell adhesion molecules bind cells to other cells or surfaces
i.e cadherins, integrins, selectins
173
What kind of bonds to telomeres contain, and why?
Telomeres contain lots of CG bonds to prevent DNA unraveling
174
What do centromeres do? What kind of bonds do they have?
Centromeres hold sister chromatids together until they are separated in mitosis
They have lots of CG bonds
175
What does helicase do?
Helicase unwinds DNA double helix
176
What does it mean when is is said that DNA replication is semiconservative?
This means that one old parents strand and one new daughter strand are incorporated into two new DNA molecules
177
What direction is DNA synthesized in?
5' to 3'
178
What is alternative splicing?
Combining different exons to generate different gene products (post-transcriptional modification)
179
What do chaperones do?
Fold proteins
180
Phosphorlyation, carboxylation, glycosylation are examples of what kind of modification?
Post-translational modification
181
What is the difference between promoters and enhancers in regards to operons?
Promoters are within 25 base pairs of transcription start site
Enhancers are more than 25 base pairs away from transcription start site
182
What is the difference between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion?
Simple diffusion = no transporter (small, nonpolar molecules)
Facilitated diffusion = uses a transporter to move impermeable solutes across cell membrane (i.e glucose)
183
What is the difference between symport and antiport?
Symport is when ion gradient goes in same direction as transport is secondary active transport
Antiport is when ion gradient goes in opposite direction as transport in secondary active transport
184
What is a histone?
A histone is a protein around which DNA is coiled (to form nucleosomes which are used to form chromatin and subsequently chromosomes)
185
Branching enzyme and debranching enzyme are associated with which processes?
Branching enzyme = glycogenesis = connects glucose as a branch using alpha 1-6 glycosidic linkage
Debranching enzyme = glycogenolysis = conncets glucose as a chain using alpha 1-4 glycosidic linkage
186
When one is well-fed (not starving) what increases?
Insulin secretion increases (because it is involved in storage)
187
When one is in a starving state what increases?
Glucagon and catecholamine secretion increases, most tissues will rely on fatty acids
188
Do pulmonary arteries/veins carry oxygenated or deoxygenated blood?
Do systemic arteries carry oxygenated or deoxygenated blood?
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood
Systemic arteries carry oxygenated blood
189
How are tissues different from bacteria?
Tissues are not capable of extended independent life
190
What is the head of a fatty acid?
Carboxyl group
| tail is hydrocarbon chain
191
What kinds of arteries/veins contain high levels of CO2?
Pulmonary artery
Systemic vein
192
What is the benefit of RBCs passing through the lung capillaries in a single file fashion?
Increases the surface area for gas exchange
193
What are the steps of normal cell trafficking?
Endoplasmic reticulum --> Golgi --> vesicle --> extracellular matrix
194
What does ribonuclease do?
Catalyzes the degradation of RNA into smaller components
195
What is a nuclease?
Nuclease = enzyme that cleaves chains of nucleotides into smaller components
196
What is an exonuclease?
Exonucleases are enzymes that work by cleaving nucleotides one at a time from the end (exo) of a polynucleotide chain
Cleaves phosphodiester bonds
197
What is an endonuclease?
Cuts DNA at or near specific recognition nucleotide sequences known as restriction sites
Also known as restriction enzyme
198
Why do hydrophobic amino acids at surface exposed site have high entropic penalities?
Because the exposed hydrophobic amino acid will be exposed to water (hydrophilic)
199
Linear glycogen has what kind of bonds?
What about branched gylcogen?
Linear = 1,4 glycosidic linkages
Branched = 1,6 glycosidic linkages
200
What two enzymes do glycogenesis use?
Glycogen synthase
Branching enzyme (1,4 --> 1,6)
201
What two enzymes do glyocgenolysis use?
Glycogen phoshphorylase
Debranching enzyme (1,6 --> 1,4)
202
Where does post-translational modification occur?
Golgi apparatus
203
Is the aorta an artery or vein?
Artery
204
What is beta oxidation?
Where does it occur?
Beta-oxidation is the breakdown of fatty acids to form acetyl coA used in the Krebs cycle
B-oxidation occurs in the mitochondria
205
When does ketogenesis occur?
When ketone bodies are formed from a prolonged glucose starvation (buildup of acetyl coA from b-oxidation) (acetyl coA is broken down into ketone bodies)
Causes blood acidosis
Think: KETO DIET
206
What is ketolysis?
Ketolysis is the regeneration of acetyl coA for use as an energy source
207
What is recombination?
How does location of chromosome affect recombination?
Recombination = production of offspring with combination of traits from both parents
Close location = low recombinant frequency
208
What are the Hardy-Weinberg equations?
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
p+q=1
209
Cocci are what shape?
Bacilli
Cocci = round
Bacilli = rod
210
What occurs during the follicular stage in menustration?
Ovulation stage?
Follicular = FSH causes growth of follicle
Ovulation = LH surge causes release of egg
211
How does progesterone act as a contraceptive?
Secretion of progesterone occurs in pregnant women, if a women is given progesterone, her body will think it is pregnant - inhibiting another pregnancy
212
What is the difference between the foramen ovale and the ductus ateriosus?
Foramen ovale = connects right and left atria in fetuses (closes at birth)
Ductus arteriosus = connects pulmonary artery to aorta, shunts blood away from lungs (closes at birth)
213
What vitamin is important in blood clotting?
Vitamin K
214
How is the pancreas involved in digestion?
Enzymes/digestive juices produced by the pancreas are secreted into small intestine to aid in digestion
215
What do maltose, sucrose,and lactose break down into?
```
Maltose = 2 glucose
Sucrose = glucose and fructose
Lactose = glucose and galactose
```
216
What is the difference between active immunity and passive immunity?
Active = self makes antibodies
Passive = antibodies are acquired from another organism
217
What kind of amino acids are present at dimer interfaces?
Hydrophobic amino acids
218
What kind of cells create antibodies?
Plasma cells
219
What is a dimer interface?
Where two amino acids connect to each other (hydrophobic because water would interfere with hydrophilic connections)
220
What amino acids are involved in beta turns?
Glycine and proline
221
What is synthesized in the nucleolus?
rRNA
222
What are intermediate filaments involves in?
Cell-cell adhesion, cytoskeleton maintenance
I.e keratin and desmin
223
What is stroma?
Suppose structure
224
What are episomes?
Plasmids that integrate into the genome
225
What are transponons?
Genetic elements that insert or remove themselves from the genome
226
What do viroids infect?
Plants
227
What do cyclins and CDKs (cyclin-dependent kinases) do in regards to the cell cycle?
Activate transcription factors
228
What is the difference between totipotent, pluripotent, and multipotent?
Totipotent = able to differentiate into all cell types (germ layer and placentals structure)
Pluripotent = able to differentiate into all 3 germ layers
Multipotent = able to differentiate into cell of only one germ layer
229
What is a morula?
Solid mass of cells in early development
230
What does it mean if a gene is WT?
WT = wild-type, not mutated!
231
What do chaperones do?
Fold proteins
232
Where are splice acceptor sites usually located?
Introns, as they are non-coding and get spliced out (not in mRNA)
233
Where are promoters and enhancers found?
In DNA
234
What does a nuclear localization signal do?
Allows proteins to enter the nucleus
235
What does a signal sequence do?
Facilitates docking of transmembrane proteins at rough ER
236
Where is the medullary and cortical portion of the collecting duct?
Medullary = deeper
Cortical = cortex = closer to the surface = not as deep
237
What does ATPase do?
ATPase is an enzyme that catalyzes the decomposition of ATP into ADP and pi
238
What does the Na+K+ ATPase do in regards to action potentials?
Na+K+ ATPase funcitons to restore the resting membrane potential by moving ions across concentrations gradients (IT IS A PUMP)
239
What do transcription factors bind to?
DNA!
240
How do hydrophobic molecules (regardless of size) cross membranes?
Simple diffusion
241
Where are pumps located in cells?
On membranes - need to move ions across both sides - otherwise the pump would not work
242
What is a lipid raft?
Area of high concentration of cholesterol and glycosphingolipids on the plasma membrane
243
Why does the initial step of filtration work?
Because of passive flow due to pressure differences
244
What does -ase denote?
An enzyme
245
If a specific gene is highly expressed, what is altered?
mRNA is altered - because more of the proteins are being made
246
What is a key difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA?
Prokaryotic is circular and has no telomeres
247
What does a phosphodiester connect?
Connects adjacent nucleotides
Sugar base connects to phosphate group
3'phosphate
5'sugar
248
What does the endomembrane system include?
ER, golgi apparatuus, lysomomes, vesicles, endosomes
249
Where does post-translation modification of proteins occur?
Golgi apparatus
250
What is the difference between homologous chromosomes and sister chromosomes
Sister chromatids are 2 chromatids, homologous chromosomes are 4 chromatids. Nondisjunction deals with homologous chromosomes
251
What is the difference between centromeres, centrosomes and centrioles?
Centromere = where sister chromatids are connected
Centrosomes contain centrioles.
Centrosomes are microtubule organizing centers
252
What is a glycoside?
A glycoside is a molecule where a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic linkage
253
What is the intermediate of mutarotation?
Straight chain form
254
What is the terminal electron accept for fermentation?
Pyruvate
255
Which is quicker, diffusion or active transport?
Active transport is quicker
256
What is meant by upregulation?
Increase
257
What is meant by upstream in molecular biology?
Occurs before
258
When Keq = 1, what does G =?
G = O, therefore no ATP is involved
259
What is the difference between positive and negative sense RNA?
Positive = can be directly converted into mRNA
Negative = cannot code for their enzymes and must carry enzymes with them
260
What does proline affect in regards to secondary structure?
Disrupts alpha-helices by causing kinks
261
How does insulin affect blood sugar?
Insulin lowers blood sugar
262
What is a point mutation?
What are the 4 types of point mutations
A point mutation is a mutation that affects one or few nucleotides
1. Silent = no change in codon
2. Nonsense = produces codon that causes premature stop
3. Missense = produces codon that codes for different amino acid
4. Frameshift = addition or deletion that changes subsequent reading of codons
263
What is an autosome?
A chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
264
How does transcription and translation differ in eukaryote vs prokaryote?
In prokaryotes, transcription and translation occur at the same time
Therefore there is no post-transcriptional modificaiton (like splicing)
265
Do prokaryotes have introns?
Does mitochondrial DNA have introns?
No prokaryotes do not have introns
Some mitochondiral dna have introns
266
What is the intermediate from DNA to mRNA
pre-mRNA (where splicing occcurs)
267
What kind of amino acids are used by the body, what kind of sugars?
L- amino acids (D amino acids are deadly)
D- sugars (delicious)
268
How are proteins denatured?
Heat
269
Thermodynamic controlled reaction is reversible or irreversible?
Kinetic controlled reaction is reversible or irreversible?
Thermo = reversible
Kinetic = irreversible
