Biodiversity, Classification and conservation Flashcards
What is the taxonomic hierarchy? (DKPCOFGS)
dumb kids prefer cheese over fried green spinach
*Each rank/group is called a taxon
3 domains:
*Bacteria
*Archae
*Eukarya
Eukarya can be split into four kingdoms:
1. Proctista
2. Fungi
3. Animalia
4. Plantae
Describe the 3 domains in the taxonomic heirarchy.
Cell Type:
Bacteria-Prokaryotic
Archaea-Prokaryotic
Eukarya-Eukaryotic
Size:
B-0.5-5μm
A-0.5-5μm
E-10-100μm
DNA:
B-circular, not associated with histones, plasmids may be present
A-circular, some assosiated with histones, plasmids may be present
E-Linear, associated with histones, But DNA im chloroplast and mitochondria is circular, plasmid absent
Nucleus:
B-Absent, DNA is at nuceloid region/lies free in cytoplasm
A-Absent
E-Present
Organelles:
B and A-No membrane bound organelles
E-Has membrane bound organelles
Ribosome:
B and A-70s
E-80s (but chloroplasts and mitochondria have 70s)
Cell wall:
B-Made of peptidoglycan
A-Present, but does not contain peptidoglycans
E-Kingdom plantae=cellulose and kingdom fungi=chitin
Method of cell division:
B and A-Binary fission
E-Mitosis, reproduction can be asexual and sexual
Cell organisation:
B-Unicellular, spherical/rod/spiral/comma shaped, May form pairs/tetrads/strings/filaments/clusters/palisades
A-Unicellular
E-Unicellular or multicellular, colonial
AVP:
B-May have flagella, pili, capsule, slime layer etc
A-Some are extremophiles, cell membrane composition different from bacteria/eukarya
Describe how bacteria can be classified.
bacteria vary greatly in shape and can be classified using shapes.
Spherical-Coccus (plural: cocci)-Streptococcus pneumoniae
Rod-shaped: Bacillus (plural:bascilli)-Bacillus anthracis (causes anthrax in sheep and cattle)
Spiral-spirallum (plural: spirilli/spirilla)-Leptospira (causes leptospirosis)
Comma shaped-Vibrio-Vibrio cholerae (causes cholera)
What are the four kingdoms of eukarya?
- Proctoctista
- Fungi
- Plantae
- Animalia
Describe proctoctista
Examples: Plasmodium falciparum, algae, amoeba, paramecium
Cell organisation: Unicellular, some colonial
Hetero/Autotrophic: some hetero (animal like= Protozoa) and some autotrophic (plant-like = algae, have chloroplast)
Cell wall: Cellulose cell wall present in some
Vacuole: Present in some
Motility: Some have flagella/cilia and are motile
Describe Fungi:
Examples: Yeasts, Mushrooms, Penicillium
Cell organisation: Mostly multicellular, some unicellular
Hetero/autotrophic: Heterotrophic (saprophytes/parasites)
Cell wall: Made of chitin
Special organelles/ structures: Mycelium composed of thread like hyphae
May or may not have cross walls/septum
Reproduce by spores
Motility: Not motile, never have cilia/flagella
Storage of carbohydrates: glycogen
Describe plantae
Examples: Ferns, mosses, flowering plants, conifers
Cell organisation: Multicellular with differentiated cells
Hetero/autotrophic: Autotrophic, can carry out photosynthesis
Cell wall: Made of cellulose
Vacoule: Large, central, permenant vacoule
Special organelles/structures: Have chloroplasts, Have vascular tissue. e.g. xylem and phloem, have meristems
Describe animalia
Examples: Vertebrates, insects, corals, worms, jelly fish
Cell organisation: Multicellular with many types of differentiated cells
Hetero/autotrophic: heterotrophic
Cell wall: Absent
Vacoule; Small. temporary
Special organelles/structures: Cells have differentiated to form tissues and organs, have nervous coordination and can respond to stimuli quickly.
Motility: Motile, cells sometimes have cillia or flagella
Storage of carbohydrates: glycogen
Describe viruses:
Viruses:
*Non cellular structure
*50 times smaller than bacteria (20-300nm)
*Much simpler
*No plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes
*Only:
1. DNA or RNA
2. Protein coat=capsid
-Protective coat
-May have one or two coats
3. Many Viruses also have a lipid envelope
4. Some proteins may be present
e.g. haemaglutinin, neuraminidase
*All parasitic
*Can only reproduce by infecting living cells
*uses protein synthesisising machinery of host cell to replicate
- Virus bind to cell
- Incorporate viral DNA/RNA into cell
- Use host cell’s ribosomes, ER, Golgi to producr viral proteins
- Produce viruses
How can viruses be classified?
Viruses can be classified by:
*Type of nucleic acid they contain (DNA or RNA)
*Single stranded or double stranded
*Appearance
and more….
Define species:
Species: Group of similar organisms with the same
*Morphological
*Physiological
*Behavioural
*Biochemical features
*Which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring
*i.e. NOT reproductively isolated from each other
*members of one species are reproductively isolated from another species
Define ecosystem
*It is a self-sustaining unit
*It is a self-contained/defined area
*It is a community of organisms (i.e. included all populations of diff species)
*Many interactiond occur between biotic and abiotic factors
*All is linked by food webs, energy flow in system, nutrient cycling
*There is interdependence between organisms and enviroment
Define niche
*Role of organism or how it fits in an ecosystem
*Including:
*Where it lives
*How it obtains its energy
*members of the same species occupy same niche
*Diff species alter their use of the niche to avoid competition by dividing recources (recourse partitioning)
Define biodiveristy
3 levels of biodiveristy to consider:
1. Variation in ecosystems or habitats
2. The number of diff species and their relative abundance
3. Genetic variation within each species
How to calculate the biodiversity of a habitat?
Use simpson’s index of diveristy (D)
D=1-(∑(n/N)^2)
Where n=number of induviduals of each species present in the sample
N=total number of all induviduals of all species
The higher the index (nearer to 1), the higher the diversity
How to assess the distrubution and abundance of organisms in a local area?
Method 1: Random sampling using frame quadrats
For plants or small, slow moving animals
method
Method 2: Systematic sampling along line transects/Belt transects
For plants or small, slow moving animals
Find distrubution across an area
Method 3: Mark-release-recapture
For small, mobile animals
Describe the method of random sampling using frame quadrats
- Mark out area to be sampled using string and marker pole
- Use random number generator to obtain coordinates
- Place quadrat on ground at random coordinates
*Use same quadrat size of 1m^2
*Small squares are 10x10cm usually - Identify species within quadrat using key/nature guide
- Estimate species abundance
1) Counting no. of induviduals/unit area = species density
When it’s diffucult to isolate induviduals/small species/plants
2) Estimating percentage error
3)Using a named abundance scale
e.g. AFCOR scale, Braun-Blanquet cover-abundance scale
- Repeat many times to ensure reliable results and obtain mean results
*Not just three times!
*Repeat sampling at different times of year or seasons - Safety
*Allergy to pollen-wear mask
*Allergy to plants-wear gloves and protective clothing
Describe what systematic sampling along line transcect/belt transects is used for and the types of systematic sampling.
*Useful for non-uniform distrubution
*Shows how communities change/distrubution of diff species across an area
*Sample/measure species abundance at set distances along a transect or line.
Types of systematic sampling:
1. Line transect=record what is touching the line/string.
2. Belt transect=use quadrats along transect
*Continous belt transect=turn each quadrat over, end to end
*Interrupted belt transect=use regular intervals
describe the method of systematic sampling along line transects/belt transects.
- Lay out line/tape running across a certain area
*Measure using measuring tape (min 10m) - Line transect:Count species that touches the line
OR
Continuous belt transect:Turn each quadrat over,end-to-end
Interrupted Belt transect:Place quadrats along line in regular intervals
*Use same quadrat size of 1m^2 - Use key/nature guide to identify diff species
- Estimate species abundance-3 ways
1)Count no. of induviduals/unit area=species density
2)Estimate percentage error
3)Use ACFOR/Braun Blanquet cover-abundance scale - Repeat sampling
*Repeat transect at a diff start point
*At diff times of year and seasons - Safety
*Allergy to pollen-wear mask
*Allergy to plants-wear gloves and protective clothing
Describe the method of mark-release-recapture
- Capture animals using trap with food as bait
- Mark animals
*e.g. paint, clip fur
*Ensure it does not have adverse effects/make them more visible to predators - Release animals to habitat
- Allow some time for random mixing to occur, but not too long after as migration may occur
- Recapture animals a 2nd time
- Calculated no. of marked induviduals
- Use petersen index/lincoln index to estimate population size
Estimated population size=no. of marked time 1 x no. capture time 2/no. of marked induviduals recaptured time 2
How can we see the effect of abiotic and biotic factors on the distribution and abundance of species?
- Plot a scatter graph of our data to assess the relationship between two paired sets of data
E.g. age vs glucose levels
*Look at whether the scatter graph is linear or skewed - Find correlation coefficient using statistical tests!
*Method 1: Pearsons linear correlation
*Method 2: Spearman’s rank correlation
Correlation coefficient of…
+1 indicates perfect positive correlation
-1 indicates perfect negative correlation
0 indicates no correlation/ points are scattered at random
Note: correlation does not equal causation!!!
What is pearson’s linear correlation?
*Test for correlation between 2 paired sets of data
*Null hypothesis=There is no significant correlation between….. and ……
Requirements;
*Continuous/interval data
*Both sets are normally distributed
*Scatter graph indicates a linear/skewed relationship with no obvious outliers
*There are 5 or more pairs of data
*Pearson’s correlation coefficient= r
How can we determine significance in pearson’s
1) Calculate r value using formula
2)Calculate total degrees of freedom for pearson’s
➡️V=number of pairs-2=n-2
➡️Either number of pairs or degree of freedom can be shown in the table so read table headings carefully
3)Check critical value at p=0.05
4)Check if critical value in r table is lower/higher compared to r value calculated (Ignore positive or negative sign)
How can we make calculations in pearson’s
1) If r value calculated is higher than value in t table:
➡️The two data sets are significantly correlated
➡️Reject null hypothesis
➡️Relationship is NOT due to random error/chance
2) If r value calculated is lower than value in table:
➡️The means of the data are not significantly correlated
➡️Accept null hypothesis
What is the spearman’s rank correlation?
*Test for correlation between 2 paired sets of data
Requirements:
*Data is ordinal/discrete
*Data is not normally distributed
*Scatter graph shows that there is a relationship (not necessarily linear/ skewed)
*There are 5 or more pairs of data
*Data points within samples are independent
*All individuals must be selected at random from a population
*Spearman’s correlation coefficient=r s
(Small s)
How does the ranking in spearman’s work?
- Do this for both sets of data
- Rank within the same sets of data
- Start by ranking the smallest value as 1.
- If same value, share same two ranks
- Find difference in rank of the pair
How can we determine significance in spearman’s?
- Calculate rs value using formula
- Calculate total degrees of freedom
→V=number of pairs-2=n-2
→In this case, v=10-2=8
→Either n or df can be shown in table!So read table carefully! - Check critical value at p=0.05
- Check if critical value in r s table is lower/higher compared to rs value calculated
(Ignore positive or negative sign)
How can we make conclusions in spearman’s
1) If rs value is calculated is higher than value in table:
→The two data sets are significantly correlated
→Reject null hypothesis
→Relationship is NOT due to random chance/error
2)If rs value calculated is lower than value in table:
→The two data sets are not significantly correlated
→Accept null hypothesis
→Relationship is due to chance/random error
Why is their a need to mantain biodiveristy.
- Ecological reasons
- Economic benefits
- Moral/ethical reasons
- Cultural and aesthetic reasons
What are the ecological reasons to mantain biodiversity?
*Mantains genetic variation and large gene pool
*High genetic diveristy is important
*Avoid inbreeding depression/promote hybrid vigour
*So there is decrease in homozygosity/increase in heterozygosity
*Less chance harmful recessive alleles may be expressed
*Increases ability of population to adapt to changing enviroment
*Increases chances of survival when exposed to pathogen/disease
* Mantians food webs/food chains in ecosystem
* Nutrient cycling
*Protection againts soil retention
*Climate stability /prevent natural disasters
What are the economic benefits of mantaining biodiversity?
*Resource material:
*E.g. wood for builiding, fibres for clothes, food for humans, herbs for medicine
*Ecotourism
*Scientific research:
*Resource/species may have use in future
*E.g. medical use
*E.g. wild strains possess gene pool to further improve crops
What are the moral and ethical reasons for mantaining biodiversity.
*Allow indigenous population to preserve its own cultural values
*Humans have responsibilty to conserve beauty for its aesthetic value
*Humans have responsibilty to prevent extinction
*Humans have no right to cause organism to cease to exist
What is the need for conservation?
*Need to especially protect keystone species! Removal of any keystone species will cause significant impact on the ecosystem.
*E.g. The honeybee, Apis mellifera is an important pollinator for many plants, vegetables and crops.
*BUT it is not just induvidual species that need conserving, but whole ecosystems!
*conserving biodiversity is thus a diffucult task…
BUT is acheived by induviduals, local groups national and international organisations.
*At all levels-local, national and global levels.
What is the role of NGOs in conservation?
In general, NGOs play a role to:
*Conserve species and biodiversity and prevent extinction
*Promote coexistence of wildlife and people
*Educate people and raise awareness through publicity campaigns
*Raise funds/donations
*Hold protests OR take direct action to prevent development or exploitation
*Influence governments and businesses
*Ban/reduce….hunting/polluting/oil drilling/mining/deforestation
E.g. worldwide fund for nature (WWF), Greenpeace, Oceana etc
Give especially important international NGOs!
- IUCN
*Global authority on the status of the enviroment and conservation
*Monitor and categorise threatened and endangered species
→IUCN Red List
*Vigorous research and reporting - Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flores (CITES)
*Trade agreements law between goverments
*Regulate/Legistate for trade in wild species
*To prevent international trade of endangered species or certain animal products
*IUCN informs key decisions at the CITES conferences
What are the threats to biodiveristy of aquatic and terrestial ecosystems?
Lack of human education
Habitat loss and habitat fragmentation
Overexploitation of resources (Hunting, poaching,fishing, removal of plants
Climate change
Increase in pollution/waste
Humans often introduce invasive alien species that outcompete native ones
Describe the threat of habitat loss and habitat fragmentation to biodiveristy of aquatic and terrestial ecosystem?
Threat: Habitat loss and habitat fragmentation
Cause: Deforestation-Clear land for agriculture/housing/industry
e.g. palm oil plantations in SEA
Trawling destroys sea beds, reclaimed land, clearing of river banks
Effect: Loss of breeding sites, increased distance to find food
Describe the threat of overexploitation of resources (Hunting, poaching,fishing removal of plants) to biodiveristy of aquatic and terrestial ecosystem?
Threat: Overexploitation of resources (Hunting, poaching, fishing, removal of plants)
Cause: For food, sport, medicine, decoration
Trade in animal parts
Selling of rare plants
Grazing by cattle destroys plants
Effects: Decrease in numbers
Describe the threat of climate change to biodiveristy of aquatic and terrestial ecosystem?
Threat: Climate change
Cause: Emissions of greenhouses gases e.g. CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
Combustion of fossil fuels
manure of domestic livestock
Effect: Greenhouse effect + global warming
Destruction of ozone layer
Rising sea levels
Decrease in area of ice sheets
Change in sea temperature/decrease in oxygen concentration of sea
Climate becoming more unpredicatable and extreme
Describe the threat of increase in pollutions/waste to biodiveristy of aquatic and terrestial ecosystem?
Threat: Increase in pollution/waste
Cause: Oil spill e.g. oil rig explosion at the gulf of mexico in 2010-4.9 million barrels of crude oil spilled
Increased used of pesticides/insecticides/fertilisers/mining
Plastic is hard to break down
Effect: habitat loss/habitat fragmentation
decrease in numbers
Soil acidificarion due to fertilisers
Pollution of water, soil, air
Soil erosion due to mining
Describe the threat of humans often introducing invasive alien species that outcompete native ones to biodiveristy of aquatic and terrestial ecosystem?
Threat: Humans often introduce invasive species that outcompete native ones
Cause: Increased competiton
Decreased food, shelter and breeding sites in remaining natural habitats
Increase in predators/grazers/spread of disease
e.g. grey squirells from us brought to europe are not effected by squirrelpox virsu but spread it to red squirrels. They are also larger and outcompete red squirelles for food!
Effect: Decrease in numbers
Inbreeding due to smal population
*Leads to inbreeding depression
*So there is increase in homozygosity
*Higher chance harmful recessive alled may be expressed
What is an endangered species?
*Species is threatened with extinction
*Numbers reduced to critical level/population too small
*Such low numbers that reproduction is affected
*IUCN Red list of threatened species provide info about the conservation status of species
*Vertebrates are usually higher profile bcs they are more visible, can detect easily when numbers decrease
What are the ways to protect endangered species?
- Zoos and captive breeding
- Assisted reproduction(IVF, Embryo transfer, surrogacy)
- Botanic gardens
- Conserved areas (national parks and marine parks)
- Frozen zoos
- Seed banks
- Restoring degraded habitats
How does zoos and captive breeding help protect endangered species?
Advantages:
*Provide adequate food,healthcare
*protection from predators and disease
*Provide as natural enviroment as possible
Disdvantages:
*Stress in captivity
*Behavioural changes
→Unnatural enviroment
Reproduction advantages:
*Can monitor health of mother
*Can monitor developmnent of foetus
Reproduction disadvantages:
*Reproductive cycles distrupted
Advantages:
*Can use assisted reproduction (IVF, AI)
*Store sperm/eggs/gametes
*Can incubate fertilised eggs artificially/embryo transfer into surrogate mother
Disadvantages: May reject selected male but…
Advantages:
Can have international cooperations to transfer breeding partners btwn zoos
Diadvantages:
Inbreeding due to small gene pool
Advantages:
Release after captive breeding:
Increase number of endangered species
Can reintroduce to wild
Can prevent extinction
Disadvantages:
Release after captive breeding:
Difficulty in finding food
Lack of survival skills
Lack fear of humans/predators
May not integrate into other groups
More susceptible to disease in wild
Very little natural habitat left to release animals into
Advantages:
Research and education:
Easier to research on behaviour,habitat requirements
Genetic records kept
Educate people
How does assisted reproduction help in protecting endangered species?
*Usually used in captive breeding!
*useful for species where reproduction is difficult
*Mantains/increase genetic variation
*Avoid inbreeding
Types:
a)In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
b)Artificial insemination (AI)
How does in vitro fertilisation (IVF) work
- Hormone treatment used to induce superovulation
- Many oocytes harvested from female
- Obtain fresh/frozen sperm
- Oocytes mixed with sperm *ideally genetically identical
- Conduct genetic test and select embryos that are most likely yo survive
- Embryo transfer!
*Embryo implanted in uterus of donor female
*OR may use similar species/non-rare breed as surrogate mother
*OR freeze embryos and store for long time in frozen zoo
How does artificial insemination work?
- Collect semen
- Screen semen to select sperms
*Sperm is ideally genetically different, fertile and disease-free - Sperm is artificially introduced to female
What is the function of botanical gardens in protecting endangered species?
Functions:
*Cooperate with governments/charities/universities for research
*To conserve habitats or restore habitats
*To reintroduce species to wild
*Educate public and raise awareness
*Raise funds
How do botanical gardens protect endangered species?
- Collect plant seeds from the wild
*From many countries,
*Specially from areas at risk from climate change - Plant seeds and grow plants in botanic gardens
- Increase plant number and seed number by tissue culture/cloning
- Store seeds in seed bank
*To mantain/measure genetic diversity
*Seed bank acts as gene bank
How do conserved areas (national parks and marine parks) protect endangered species?
*Protect habitat and breeding sites
*Prevent population
*Restrict human access and activity
*E.g. hunting, dividing, fishing, control agriculture and industry
*Rangers patrol parks
*Education through visitor centres
*Ecotourism
How do frozen zoos protect endangered species?
*Freeze sperm/eggs/embryos of many different species of animals
→Cryoperservation
*Acts as a gene bank
→Increases number of breeding stock/potential mates
→Can mantain or increase genetic variation
Advantages:
*Sperm easily transported to other zoos (causing less stress to animal)
*Genetic material of an endangered species stored
*For conservation and research
*Less space and maintenance to store than actual zoos
How do seed banks protect endangered species?
*Variety/collection of seeds in long-term storage
*Frozen, stored at temperatures below -13℃ or dried
*Prevent germination/mantain dormancy of seeds
*Seeds regularly tested for viability
*seeds re-stocked regularly
*Acts as gene bank
*To mantain genetic diversity/preserve genetic material
*Can be used after enviromental disaster/new diseases….. to increase numbers
*Research and education
Advantages:
*Seeds, take up less space and maintenance, is cheaper to store than growing plants
*Seeds are less prone to disease and being eaten
*Seeds can be stored anywhere in the world
What are the different degraded habitats that can be restored to protect endangered species?
Restoring terresrial habitats
Restoring aquatic habitats
Management of alien species
How can restoring terrestrial habitats protect endangered species?
*Reforestation
*Creat sustainable palm oil plantations
*Find alternatives to palm oil
*Create wildlife corridors between fragmented habitats
*Stabilising hills created by mining
*Normalising pH of soil
*Removal of toxic layer of soil/soils cleaned and put back
*Improve soil fertility using organic fertilisers
*Protection against grazing
How can restoring aquatic habitats protect endangered species?
Bubbling oxygen through water
Normalising pH of water bodies
Cleaning and restocking ponds,rivers and streams with aquatic animals
Restore sea beds destroyed by trawling
Replant corals
Waste Management
Litter/waste removal from habitats
Bioremediation=using living organisms to clean up waste
E.g. using oil eating bacteria and spartina sp. cordgrass to clean up oil spills
e.g. plastic-eating worms/bacteria
How can management of alien species protect endangered species?
*Removal of alien species
*Reintroduction of native animal species
→E.g. from captive breeding
*Do not release pets/house/aqaurium plants into the wild
*ban import, breeding, selling or keeping invasive alien species
Why do we need to control alien species?
*Alien species are non-native species introduced into new areas
*New area has no natural predators or grazers to control population
*So alien species population expand rapidly
Why the need to control?
*Outcompete native species
*Spread disease
*Alter food webs due to predation
*Reduce other organism’s abundance/reduce biodiversity
*May change habitat
*May be toxic to humans
Why does overpopulation occur?
Overpopulation occurs as there is a limit to how many induviduals of a species the habitat can support.
How to prevent overpopulation?
Culling and contraceptive methods
Culling or contraceptive methods aim to control the population
*Result in reduced spread of disease/more resources for protected species
*Can be used to control population of non-protected species that compete with protected ones for food, water, territories (E.g. invasive species, pests)
*Can be used to eliminate the physically weaker to improve quality of remaining stock
*Methods: Trapping and killing, neutering, administring oral contraceptives, introducing a biological control agent (use its natural predator/competitor)
