Biochem Anderson Flashcards
1
Q
Fatty acids, glucose, and amino acids all have this common intermediate
A
Acetyl S~Co-A aka the TCA/Krebs/Citric Acid Cycle
2
Q
Monosaccharides
A
glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose…cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler CHO’s, two forms are pyranose and furanose
3
Q
carbons in a pentose sugar
A
5
4
Q
carbons in a hexose sugar
A
6
5
Q
makeup of a pyranose
A
ring of 5 carbons with 1 oxygen (ex glucose)
6
Q
makeup of a furanose
A
ring of 4 carbons with 1 oxygen (ex fructose)
7
Q
anomeric carbon
A
carbon atom that has 4 different ligands (C1 in ring form of sugars)
8
Q
epimers
A
isomers that differ in only one carbon (ex glucose and galactose)
9
Q
enantiomers
A
mirror image
10
Q
reducing sugars
A
C1 oxygen is available for redox…glucose, galactose and fructose are reducing sugars and sucrose is a non-reducing sugar
11
Q
cataracts could be from a failure to metabolize
A
D-galactose (galactosemia)
12
Q
physiologic important disaccharides
A
sucrose, maltose, lactose…linked by glycosidic linkages
13
Q
composition and bond of maltose
A
glucose + glucose, alpha 1-4 bond
14
Q
composition and bond of lactose
A
galactose + glucose, beta 1-4 bond (lactase specific)
15
Q
composition and bond of sugar
A
glucose + fructose, alpha 1 - beta 2 bond
16
Q
bonds of glycogen
A
alpha 1-4 (chains), alpha 1-6 (branch)
17
Q
bond of glucose
A
beta 1-4…cannot be hydrolyzed by humans
18
Q
example of an unbranched polysaccharides
A
amylose (15-20% starch)
19
Q
example of branched polysaccharide
A
amylopectin (80-85% starch)…glycogen is even more branched
20
Q
inulin hydrolyzes to
A
fructose
21
Q
what breaks down all polysaccharieds to monos
A
brush border enzymes
22
Q
how are the monosaccharides absorbed
A
glucose and galactose via Na cotransporters, fructose via facilitated diffusion
23
Q
What happens in the mitochondria?
A
krebs, fatty acid oxidation, formation of acetyl CoA, part of urea cycle, part of gluconeogenesis
24
Q
what happens in the golgi apparatus
A
synthesis and packaging of complex molecules including glycolipids, glycoproteins, and lipoproteins
25
what happens in the cytosol
glycolysis, HMP shunt, protein synthesis, fatty acid synthesis, part of urea cycle, part of glucoeogensis
26
what do lysosomes do?
degradation of complex macromolecules
27
what happens in the nucleus
DNA and RNA synthesis
28
Only tissue all processes of TCA cycle occur in to any significant extend
Liver
29
ATP produced from a glucose molecule
36-38, most being produced from electron transport system/ox phos
30
Outline of TCA cycle
Citrate (C6) losing 2 CO2s and becomes Oxaloacetate (C4) which combines with Acetyl-CoA (C2) to form Citrate (C6) again.
31
B1
thiamin aka thiamin diphosphate (alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase reaction)
32
B2
riboflavin aka FAD
33
B3
niacin aka NAD
34
B5
pantothenic acid which is a part of Coenzyme A
35
electron transport chain/ox phos happens in the
mitochondria...enzymatically catalyzed reactions
36
What is ox phos?
addition of P to ADP to get ATP
37
primary rate limiting enzyme of glycolysis
Phosphofructokinase
38
aerobic glycolysis ends at
pyruvate, producing 2 net ATP
39
anaerobic glycolysis ends at
lactate, producing less energy per unit glucose but net 2 ATP (only ATP produced under anaerobic conditions)
40
what stimulates and inhibits glycolysis
insulin stimulates and ATP inhibits
41
gluconeogensis is stimulated by
ATP/cortisol/epi/glucagon
42
alanine is from
skeletal muscle
43
lactate is from
skeletal muscle and is delivered to liver
44
substrate for gluconeogenesis
glycerol
45
Tell me about Hexokinase/Glucokinase (same thing)
catalyzes glucose to G-6-P, part of glycolysis, uses 1 ATP
46
Tell me about Phosphofructokinase
catalyzes F-6-P to F-1,6-P, part of glycolysis, uses 1 ATP
47
Tell me about pyruvate/PEP kinase
catalyzes PEP to pyruvate, part of glycolysis, creates 2 ATP
48
2 places ATP is created in glycolysis
F-1,6-P to PEP (2 ATP) and PEP to Pyruvate (2 ATP)
49
Tell me about Pyruvte Dehydrogenase
catalyzes Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA, part of glycolysis
50
Tell me about Pyruvate Carboxylase
catalyzes pyruvate to oxaloacetate to malate, part of gluconeogenesis
51
Tell me about Pyruvate Carboxykinase
catalyzes oxaloacetate to PEP, part of gluconeogenesis
52
Tell me about F-1,6 Diphosphatase
catalyzes F-1,6-P to F-6-P, part of gluconeogenesis
53
Tell me about Glucose-6-Phosphatase
catalyzes G-6-P to glucose, part of gluconeogenesis
54
All important enzymes of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis occur the cytosol except these two exzymes which occur in the mitochondria
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (glycolysis) and Pyruvate Carboxylase (Gluconeogenesis)
55
What stimulates gluconeogenesis and what inhibits it
epi, glucagon, cortisol stimulate...insulin inhibits
56
The presence of F-6-P and F-2,6-P negatively feedback on ___ to do what
feedback on Fructose-1,6-Diphosphatase to stop gluconeogenesis when the glucose concentration is high enough
57
What type of unit is muscle glycogen
hexose...used for glycolysis within the muscle, rarely depelted except after long/vigorous exercise
58
liver glycogen is mainly used for
blood glucose maintenance mainly b/w meals...12-18 hours fasting will mostly deplete it
59
where does glycogenesis mainly occur
liver and muscle
60
glucose is phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate e by
hexokinase in muscle cells or glucokinase in liver cells
61
whats the major controller of liver glycogen metabolism (glycogenolysis)
concentration of phosphorylase-a...controls rate limiting step in glycogenolysis...inhibited by rising glucose...inhibits glycogen synthesis by lowering protein phosphatase-1
62
glycogen metabolism is regulated by what two things
glycogen synthase and phosphorylase
63
if you have increased cAMP and it activates phosphorylase what process does it lead to
glycogenolysis
64
if you inactivate glycogen synthase what does it slow
slows glycogenesis
65
what does the Hexose Monophosphate shunt do and where does it occur
alternate route for glucose metabolism, no ATP generation, generates NADPH for reductive syntheses (like steroids) and provides ribose residues for nucleotide biosynthesis. Occurs in the cytosol
66
describe the first phase (oxidative phase) or the Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
non-reversible, glucose-6-phosphate to ribulose-5-phosphate which uses glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase
67
describe the second phase (non-oxidative) of the hexose monophosphate shunt
reversible, takes ribulose-5-phosphate back to G-6-P and uses transketolase and transaldolase
68
if you dont recycle glutathione you wont break down
peroxide...the HMP shunt is key for this process
69
if fuctose is not used by the muscle and broken down into fructose-6-phospate then it will be
converted to sorbitol which is toxic in high amounts
70
galactose is converted to glucose by
first being converted to glycogen
71
essential fatty acids
linoleic (O-6), linolenic (O-3), and conditionally arachidonic acid (O-6)
72
what do elongases do
elongate fatty acid by 2
73
what do desaturases do
desaturate at a specific delta point and thus create another number on the second number
74
what do trans fats do to cholesterol
increase LDL and lower HDL...also compete for cell membrane sites and aggravate essential fatty acid deficiency
75
major site of cholesterol synthesis is
the liver although other tissues are also active
76
where does synthesis of cholesterol occur in the liver
cytoplasm
77
carbon atoms in cholesterol are provided by
acetate...NADPH provides reducing equivalents
78
rate limiting step of cholesterol synthesis is
conversion of HMG CoA to mevalonate by HMG CoA reductase.....inhibited by cholesterol
79
what receptor do chylomicrons use
Apo-E
80
what receptor do HDLs use
A-1
81
what receptor do LDLs use
Apo-B 100
82
HDL trades what for what
HDL trades cholesterol away to get triglycerides
83
what does ACAT do
takes extra free cholesterol and turns it into a cholesterol ester so it doesn't oxidize...can be returned to free form by CE hydrolase
84
antioxidant of the RBCs and liver
glutathione
85
antioxidant of the plasma
vitamin C which recycles vitamin E and glutathione
86
antioxidant of LDL
vitamin E
87
eicosanoids are active 20-carbon fatty acids that give rise to
prostanoids: prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and lekotrienes
88
what fatty acid makes Series 1 eicosanoids
linoleic (O-6)
89
what fatty acid makes Series 2 eicosanoids
Arachadonic Acid
90
what fatty acid makes Series 3 eicosanoids
Alpha Linolenic Acid (O3)
91
pathway of Series-1 (O-6)
non-animal source of fat is turned into GLA by delta-6-desaturase. GLA then goes to DHGL which can either because end series 1 cytokines or can go into Series 2 by being acton on by delta-5-desaturase
92
pathway of Series 2 (arachidonic)
animals fats acted on by delta-5-desaturase to become cyclooxygenase or lipoxygenase which go to Series 2 cytokines
93
pathway of series 3 (O-3)
flaxseed acted on by delta-6 desaturase to become EPA which goes to DHA which goes to Series 3 cytokines.
94
Which series are pro-inflammatory and which are anti
1 and 3 are anti-inflammatory and 2 is pro
95
what can block delta-6-desaturase and thus limit anti-inflammatory cytokines
stress hormones, age, cancer
96
what stimulates delta-6-desaturase and thus enables anti-inflammatory cytokines
B-6, Mg, Zn
97
what blocks Delta-5 desaturase and thus inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines
EPA, DHA, Glucagon
98
what stimulates Delta-5 desaturase and thus enables pro-inflammatory cytokines
insulin
99
what enzymes brings arachadonate out from membrane phospholipids
phopholipase A2
100
what is phospholipase A2 stimulated and inhibited by
stimulated by antiotensin 2, bradykinin, epinephrine, thrombin...inhibited by corticosteroids
101
arachadonate can go to what things from which two pathways
can use lipoxygenase to make leukotrienes or use cyclooxygenase to make prostaglandins and thromboxanes
102
what inhibits cyclooxygenase
NSAIDs
103
renin for turnings milk to paracasein is active in
infants
104
short and medium chain fatty acids absorb directly from stomach into the
portal circulation
105
micelle formation is aided by
bile
106
what enzyme hydrozlyses cholesteryl esters to free cholesterol
cholesterol esterase
107
after the micelle brings lipids to absorptive surface, the lipids diffuse into the intestinal cell and are re-esterified to form chylomicrons, those chylomicrons are then exocytosed into the
lymphatics
108
fats are how many Kcal/gram
9
109
what enzyme takes HMG-CoA to the pathway that eventually leads to ketones
HMG-CoA Lyase
110
ketones are toxic to and cannot be used by the
liver even though it produces them
111
what helps fat get into the mitochondria
carnintine enzymes
112
carnintine palmitoyl transferase I is on the ___ and CPT II is on the ___
CPT I on the outer mitochondrial membrane to bring acyl coa in and CPT II is on the inner membrane to do the same after Carnitine Acyl Transferase (CAT) has removed and recycled the carnitine anchor
113
esterification is
formation of TG
114
Beta Oxidation is
cleavage of the FA at the carboxyl end to form the 2-C Acetyl CoA mollecule
115
all proteins have a primary structure which has ___ bonds
covalent...must have enzyme to break
116
secondary protein structure uses these bonds
disulfide bonds
117
tertiary protein structure uses these bonds
disulfide
118
quarternary protein structure has subunits bonded by
weak forces
119
a protein is considered an amino acid if it is less than
10 amino acids in length
120
Pneumonic for the essential amino acids
Three Liars, Val, Lucy and Me, Tripped and Fell in His Isolation tank...Threonine, Lysine, Valine, Lecine, Methionine, Tryptophan, Phenylalanine, Histidine, Isoleucine, and a rando Arginine
121
K/cal/gram in an amino acid
4 Kcal/gram
122
glucogenic type proteins can convert to
glucose
123
ketogenic type proteins can convert to
Acetyl-CoA and are too late to become glucose
124
dopa, dopamine, NE, epi, T3/T4, and melanin all come from
tyrosine
125
serotonin, melatonin, and niacin come from
tryptophan
126
GABA comes from
glutamate
127
porphyrin, heme, and creatine come from
glycine
128
histamine comes from
histadine
129
what three peptides make up glutathione
Glutamic Acid, Cystein, Glycine
130
proteins are all absorbed by
Na dependent cotransport
131
di/tri peptides are hydrolyzed to amino acids by
peptidases
132
non-competitive enzymes bind
reversibly bind to a non-substrate site
133
competitive enzymes bind
at the substrate binding site
134
irreversible enzymes are
poison
135
law that governs saturable quality of enzyme reactions and speed estimation
Michaelis-Menten and Hill
136
hydrolase
adds H2O to break bonds (hydrolysis)
137
Aldolase
cleaves C-C bonds to form aldehydes
138
dehydrogenase
removes H from substrate
139
Hydratase
adds H2O to C-C bonds without breaking the bond and can also remove the H2O to create a double bond
140
esterase
hydrolyzes ester linkages to form an alcohol and acid
141
Phase 1 liver detox (CYP450) does what
converts fat soluble compounds to water solubles compounds...naturally creates peroxide and superoxide free radicals
142
Phase 2 liver detox does what
takes water soluble compounds and does enzymatic conjugation (glycine, glutathione, glucuronic acid) and creates excreted derivatives
143
in liver detox, glycine creates
hippurates
144
in liver detox, glutathione creates
mercapturates
145
in liver detox, glucuronic acid creates
glucuronides
146
insulin is generally
anabolic
147
GH promotes synthesis of
protein at the expense of fat and sugars
148
Cortisol increases ___ and build up of ___
increases blood sugar levels and build up of glycogen stores at the expense of fat and protein
149
key enzyme of lipolysis
carnitine acyltransferase (CAT)
150
key enzyme of fat mobilization
hormone sensitive lipase
151
key enzyme of lipid synthesis
acetyl-CoA carboxylase
152
key enzyme of ketone body synthesis
HMG CoA synthase
153
key enzyme of TCA cycle
Pyruvate dehydrogenase
154
brain can use
glucose or ketones
155
muscles uses
fatty acids at rest and glucose during exercise
156
hearts uses
anything for energy
157
RBCs use
glucose
