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Biochem 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the enzymes involved in the 3 irreversible steps in glycolysis in order

A

hexokinase
phosphofructokinase
pyruvate kinase

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2
Q

what converts glucose into glucose-6-phosphate

A

hexokinase
Mg2+
ATP

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3
Q

what converts fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-biphosphate

A

phosphofructokinase

ATP

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4
Q

function of pyruvate kinase

A

converts phosphoenolpyruvate into pyruvate

ADP into ATP

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5
Q

in terms of Gibbs why does glycolysis have 3 irreversible steps

A

each reaction has a very large negative delta gibbs

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6
Q

difference between a cofactor and a coenzyme

A

a cofactor is any non-protein component on an enzyme

a coenzyme is an organic cofactor

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7
Q

why is the 2834KJ/mol of free energy from the oxidation of glucose not all converted into heat

A

biological systems cannot utilise heat energy
no single step requires that much energy release
the energy is released in steps

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8
Q

where does glycolysis occur

A

cytosol

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9
Q

products of glycolysis

A

2 pyruvate
2 NADH + 2H
2ATP

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10
Q

name the coenzymes involved in glycolysis

A

ATP/ADP

NADH/NAD

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11
Q

what is glycerol converted into in glycolysis

A

intermediate - dihydroxyacetone phosphate

then may be converted into pyruvate

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12
Q

what is dihydroxyacetone converted into in gluconeogenesis

A

glucose-6-phosphate

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13
Q

difference between a kinase and a phosphatase

A

kinase - phosphorylate

phosphatase - dephosphorylate

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14
Q

what transport protein carries glucose across a membrane

A

GLUT2

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15
Q

what converts glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-6-phosphate

A

phosphoglucose isomerase

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16
Q

function of aldolase and what step is it involved in

A

cleaves fructose-1,6-biphosphate into
dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP)
reversible reaction - step 4 of glycolysis

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17
Q

what is step 5 of glycolysis

A

triosephosphate isomerase
converts DHAP (dihydroxyacetone phosphate) into GAP (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)
reversible reaction

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18
Q

outline step 6 of glycolysis

A

GAP dehydrogenase
converts GAP (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) into 1,3-biphosphoglycerate
reversible

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19
Q

outline step 7 of glycolysis

A

phosphoglycerate kinase
converts 1,3-phosphoglycerate into 3-phosphoglycerate
reversible

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20
Q

step 8 of glycolysis

A

phosphoglycerate mutase
3-phosphoglycerate into 2-phosphoglycerate
reversible

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21
Q

what step in glycolysis is enolase involved in and what is its function

A

step 9
converts 2-phosphoglycerate into phosphoenol-pyruvate
reversible
H2O by-product

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22
Q

under anaerobic conditions how many ATP is produced for every molecule of glucose converted to lactate/alcohol

A

2 ATP

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23
Q

where does the electron transport chain occur in prokaryotic organisms

A

cell membrane

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24
Q

how does pyruvate reach the matrix

A

porins from the cytoplasm into the intermembrane space

mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) through the inner membrane into the matrix

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25
Q

what happens to pyruvate in the mitochondrial matrix, and what does it

A

is converted into acetyl CoA

pyruvate dehydrogenase

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26
Q

what happens when there is an excess of glucose in the presence of co-enzyme A

A

used for the synthesis of fatty acids in the cytosol

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27
Q

what converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA

A

pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

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28
Q

in the bridge between glycolysis and the TCA cycle what enzyme is used in E1 and what is its prosthetic group and what does it do

A

pyruvate dehydrogenase
thiamine pyrophosphate
converts lipoamide into lipoate

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29
Q

in the bridge between glycolysis and the TCA cycle, what enzyme and prosthetic group is used in E2, and what happens

A

dihydrolipoyl transacetylase
lipoamide and Coenzyme-A (CoA -SH)
converts CoA-SH into acetyl-CoA

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30
Q

enzyme and prosthetic group of E3, and what happens

A

dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase
FAD/NAD
FAD carries H+ from reduced lipoamide to NAD+ to convert it into NADH

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31
Q

step 1 of the TCA cycle, reactants, enzyme and product

A

acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate
citrate synthase
citrate

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32
Q

TCA step 2

A

the tertiary alcohol in citrate is coverted into a secondary alcohol forming isocitrate
enzyme - aconitase

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33
Q

TCA step 3

A

isocitrate dehydrogenase converts isocitrate into oxalosuccinate
isocitrate dehydrogenase converts oxalosuccinate into alpha-ketoglutarate

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34
Q

TCA step 4

A

alpha-ketoglutarate
alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase#
succinyl-CoA

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35
Q

TCA step 5

A

succinyl-CoA
succinyl-CoA synthetase
succinate

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36
Q

TCA step 6

A

succinate
succinate dehydrogenase
fumarate

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37
Q

TCA step 7

A

fumarate
fumarase
malate

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38
Q

TCA step 8

A

malate
malate dehydrogenase
oxaloacetate

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39
Q

how much ATP is produced from glycolysis and 2 pyruvate entering the Krebb’s cycle

A

glycolysis - 8

TCA cycle - 30

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40
Q

what enzymes are involved in converting malate into aspartate and what is the purpose of this

A

malate dehydrogenase converts into oxaloacetate
transaminase converts oxaloacetate into aspartate
reduces NAD+ into NADH

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41
Q

what is the purpose of converting aspartate into malate

A

oxidises NADH into NAD+

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42
Q

how many ATP are produced per NADH produced by the malate-aspartate shuttle

A

3

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43
Q

where does the malate-aspartate shuttle generally occur and give an example

A

tissues that have relatively low energy requirements

liver

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44
Q

in the glycerol-phosphate shuttle, what causes the oxidation and reduction of NAD/FAD

A

conversion of glycerol-3-phosphate into dihydroxyacetone phosphate reduces FAD+ into FADH2
the opposite reaction oxidises NADH into NAD+

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45
Q

where is the glycerol-phosphate shuttle used

A

metabolically active tissues

neurons, muscles

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46
Q

how many ATP is produced per NADH in the glycerol-phosphate shuttle and why

A

2 ATP

one less ATP ensures the reaction does not reverse

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47
Q

where is FADH2 produced

A

inner membrane

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48
Q

function of complex I

A 
oxidises NADH 
transfers electrons to ubiquinone
becomes ubiquinol (QH2), transfers electrons to complex III
pumps 4 into the intermembrane space
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49
Q

function of complex III

A

transfers electron from one mobile electron carrier to the other
receives electron from ubiquinol and transfers it to
2 cytochrome-c, 1 electron each
pumps 4 protons into intermembrane space

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50
Q

function of complex IV

A

transfers the electrons from the cytochrome-c proteins into the matrix
pumps 2 protons into the intermembrane space
reduces O2 into H2O, O2 final electron acceptor

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51
Q

function of complex II

A

converts succinate to fumarate

oxidises FADH2 into FAD+

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52
Q

in glycogen how often does a branch occur

A

8-12 glucose

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53
Q

how many glucose in a glycogen and its diameter

A

120,000

10-40nm

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54
Q

function of phosphorylase and its prosthetic group

A 
breaks bonds via phosphorylating them
pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)
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55
Q

what can phosphorylase not phosphorylate on a glycogen

A

1-6 glycosidic bonds

1-4 bonds that are within 4 glucoses of a branch point

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56
Q

how is a branch in glycogen hydrolysed

A

phosphorylase trims the branch to 4 glucose
transferase transports 3 glucose from the branch onto the main chain
1,6-glucosidase hydrolyses the last 1-6 glycosidic bond

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57
Q

enzymes involved in glycogen into glucose

A

glycogen phosphorylase into phosphorylated glucose

phosphoglucomutase converts Pi-G into glucose

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58
Q

if the glycogen phosphorylase reaction is reversible, why doesn’t it for glycogen anabolism

A

because the concentration of Pi is much larger than

G-1-P

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59
Q

how is glycogenesis achieved

A

phosphoglucomutase - converts G-6-P into G-1-P
UDP-glucose phosphorylase - converts G-1-P into UDP-glucose using UTP
glycogen synthase - converts UDP-glucose into glycogen

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60
Q

function of glycogen synthase

A

creates 1-4 bonds onto existing chains
can’t create a chain
can’t create 1-6 bonds

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61
Q

function of glycogenin

A

creates 8 unit primer chain

is extended by glycogen synthase

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62
Q

function of branching enzyme

A

binds to chains that are 11+ units long
cuts of 7 units
reattaches the heptamer via a 1-6 bond
done 4+ units away from the existing branch

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63
Q

what does an omega-4 fatty acid indicate

A

the first double bond in the chain is at the 4th carbon

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64
Q

functions of elongases and desaturases

A

elongases - adds 2 carbons to fatty acid chain

desaturase - adds a double bond to the chain

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65
Q

what can humans not do in terms of desaturase

A

add double bonds lower than omega 9

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66
Q

how are triglycerides transported in the bloodstream and why

A

they are packaged into lipoproteins because they are too hydrophobic on their own

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67
Q

what is lipogenesis and where does it occur

A

digested triglycerides are re-esterified in the gut mucosa

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68
Q

what enzyme re-esterifies triglycerides

A

acyltransferase

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69
Q

where is lipoprotein lipase located and what is its function

A

lumenal side of endothelial cells

cleaves fatty acids which enter the cell

70
Q

function of G-3-P dehydrogenase

A

converts G-3-P into DHAP

71
Q

function of acyltransferase

A

converts glycerol-3-phosphate into lysophosphatidic acid

72
Q

what converts lysophosphatidic acid into phosphatidic acid

A

1-acylG-3-P acyltransferase

73
Q

function of phosphatidic acid phosphatase

A

converts phosphatidic acid into diacylglycerol

74
Q

what is the last step of lipogenesis, substrate, product and enzyme

A

diacylglycerol
triacylglycerol
diacylglycerol acyltransferase

75
Q

function of human serum albumin (HSA)

A

releases fatty acids so they can travel to the outer membrane of the mitochondria

76
Q

what makes acetyl-CoA

A

fatty acid + coenzyme A

77
Q

what must CoA do to cross the inner mitochondrial membrane

A

CoA must be swapped into carnitine

78
Q

what transports acetyl-carnitine

A

translocase antiporter

79
Q

what happens once acyl-carnitine enters the mitochondrial matrix

A

the acyl chain re-attaches to to CoA

80
Q

what do free fatty acids bind to in adipose tissue

A

human serum albumin

81
Q

how do fatty acids enter the outer membrane of the mitochondria

A

are released from HSA

82
Q

what are the products of beta-oxidation

A

acetyl CoA

acyl CoA

83
Q

how does the chain length of a fatty acid affect how many cycles of beta oxidation is required

A

increases cycles required with chain length

84
Q

what is a ketone body comprised of

A

3 acetyl CoA joined together

85
Q

how is acetone removed from the body

A

breath
sweat
urine

86
Q

what are the 3 destinations for amino acids in pool

A

protein synthesis
direct use
breakdown and redeployment

87
Q

what converts an amino acid into a keto acid and vice verca

A

aminotransferase

88
Q

what is the first step of fatty acid anabolism

A

condensation reaction between
activated malonyl and activated acyl
to form a C-C bond between them

89
Q

what is step 2 in fatty acid anabolism

A

reduction reaction to convert a C=O into COH

90
Q

step 3 in fatty acid anabolism

A

dehydration reaction to convert a C-C bond into a C=C bond

91
Q

step 4 of fatty acid anabolism

A

reduction reaction to add a H to C-H to from C-H2

92
Q

what is the purpose of the 4 fatty acid anabolism steps

A

the final product is an activated acyl group thats been elongated by 2 carbons, then that same acyl group can enter the reaction process again to elongate further

93
Q

how many cycles of the fatty acid anabolism chain must be completed to form palmitic acid

A

6

94
Q

what amino acids breakdown into pyruvate

A 
alanine
cysteine
glycine 
serine
threonine 
tryptophan
95
Q

what amino acids breakdown into acetyl CoA

A

isoleucine
leucine
tryptophan

96
Q

what amino acids breakdown into acetoacetyl CoA

A 
leucine 
lysine
phenylalanine
tyrosine
tryptophan
97
Q

what amino acids breakdown into alpha-ketoglutarate

A 
arginine
glutamine
glutamate
histidine 
proline
98
Q

amino acids that breakdown into succinyl CoA

A

isoleucine
methionine
valine
threonine

99
Q

amino acids that break down into fumarate

A

aspartate
phenylalanine
tyrosine

100
Q

amino acids that breakdown into oxaloacetate

A

asparagine

aspartate

101
Q

step 1 of gluconeogenesis

A

conversion of pyruvate into OAA

via pyruvate carboxylase

102
Q

step 2 of gluconeogenesis

A

conversion of F-1,6-biphosphate into F-6-phosphate

via F-1,6-biphosphatase

103
Q

the 3rd irreversible reaction of gluconeogenesis

A

glucose-6-phosphate converted into glucose

via glucose-6-phosphatase

104
Q

why can tissues that don’t contain glucose-6-phosphatase not export glucose

A

because glucose-6-phosphate cannot pass through the plasma membrane

105
Q

where is glucose-6-phosphatase located

A

plasma membrane

106
Q

what is the cori cycle and where is it located

A

conversion of lactate into glucose and vice versa

liver

107
Q

what amino acid does muscle catabolism release

A

alanine

108
Q

what is pyruvate converted into in the cori cycle and via what

A

alanine
via alanine aminotransferase
reversible reaction

109
Q

define Keq

A

ratio of product to substrate in equillibrium

110
Q

what is the mass action ratio

A

ratio of product to substrate in a cell

111
Q

what does it mean if the MAR is roughly equal to the Keq

A

that the reaction is close to equilibrium

112
Q

what does it mean if the reaction is rate limiting in the cell

A

MAR is roughly = to Keq

113
Q

for the rate limiting step, how large is the mas action ratio compared to the Keq

A

100-1000x smaller

114
Q

in a perturb system what does a crossover point mean

A

a regulatory step

115
Q

what is the preferred fuel for the heart

A

ketone bodies

116
Q

what is the preferred fuel source of immune cells and the intestines

A

glutamine

117
Q

what is the only fuel source used for spermatozoa

A

fructose

118
Q

what is lactate used for in the kidneys

A

ATP production

119
Q

what % of glucose undergoes glycolysis, glycogen, and become triglycerides

A

glycolysis - 50-60%
glycogen - 10%
triglycerides - 30-40%

120
Q

name 4 storage organs

A

liver
adipose
muscle
gut

121
Q

what is the Km of GLUT1/3 and HK1/2/3 in most tissues

A

low

122
Q

what enzymes have a high Km in the liver

A 
GLUT2
HK IV (glucokinase)
123
Q

what has a medium and what has a low Km in muscle and adipose tissue

A

medium - GLUT4

low - HK II

124
Q

what converts glucose into fat and prevents fat breakdown

A

insulin

125
Q

what does fructokinase convert fructose into

A

F-1-P

126
Q

what does F-1-P aldolase convert F-1-P into

A

glyceraldehyde

127
Q

what converts glyceraldehyde into Gly-3-P

A

triose kinase

128
Q

what enzyme does F-1-P also stimulate

A

pyruvate kinase

129
Q

what does an excess of pyruvate lead to

A

excess acetyl CoA

FA and TG synthesis

130
Q

what does alcohol dehydrogenase convert ethanol into

A

acetaldehyde

131
Q

what does aldehyde dehydrogenase convert acetaldehyde into

A

acetate

132
Q

what enzyme converts acetate into acetyl CoA

A

acetyl-CoA synthetase

133
Q

during a fasting state what is the metabolic priority of adrenaline and glucagon

A

increase glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

increase lipolysis and increased glycerol for gluconeogenesis

134
Q

during a fasting state what is the metabolic priority of cortisol

A

protein degradation

increase gluconeogenesis

135
Q

during a fasting state how does adrenaline affect muscle tissue

A 
increases:
phosphorylase
PFK1
lipoprotein lipase
HS lipase

decreases: glycogen synthase

136
Q

during a fasting state how does adrenaline and glucagon affect liver tissue

A

increase:
phosphorylase
F-1,6-biphosphate

decrease:
glycogen synthase
PFK1
acetyl CoA carboxylase

137
Q

what are the metabolic priorities when starving

A

preserve functional proteins

reduce glucose requirements

138
Q

what does muscle store under rest and when intense

A

rest/mild - glucose

intense - none

139
Q

what is the preferred substrate for muscle tissue when rest/mild versus intense activity

A

rest/mild - fatty acids

intense - glucose

140
Q

how does brown adipose tissue generate heat

A

by wasting the energy stored in fat

important in babies

141
Q

what does the activation uncoupling protein 1 lead to

A

uncoupling of electron transport chain and ATP synthesis

142
Q

what is UCP1 activated by

A

FFA

143
Q

how is metabolic processes used to in thermogenesis

A

instead of producing ATP from the electron transport chain, the energy is lost and released into heat

144
Q

what is the reversibility of a drug with covalent effects, and non-covalent

A

covalent - irreversible

non-covalent - reversible

145
Q

definition of an agonist

A

produces a response

146
Q

definition of an antagonist and difference between a pharmacological antagonist and a physiological one

A

blocks a response, has no action of its own
pharmacological - prevents the action of an agonist at its receptor
physiological - agents which have mutually antagonistic responses but act via different receptors

147
Q

difference between efficacy and potency

A

efficacy - the size of the response

potency - the concentration needed for a response

148
Q

how does a partial agonist effect the response curve

A

lowers the overall efficacy

lowers the curve

149
Q

how does a competitive antagonist effect the response curve

A

shifts the response curve to the right

no overall change to efficacy

150
Q

what agents are blocked by atropine

A

muscarine
arecoline
oxotremorine

151
Q

what agent is histamine blocked by

A

mepyramine

152
Q

name the 4 agonists at the skeletal neuromuscular junction and their order of potency

A

proprionylcholine - 400
butyrylcholine - 150
acetylcholine - 100
valerylcholine - 30

153
Q

what are nicotinic receptors blocked by

A

d-tubocurarine

154
Q

what are muscarinic receptors blocked by

A

atropine

155
Q

what type of receptor is the muscarinic receptor

A

G-protein coupled

156
Q

where are muscarinic receptors located

A 
intestinal smooth muscle
heart
blood vessels
salivary glands
CNS
157
Q

what type of receptors are nicotinic receptors

A

ligand-gated ion channels

158
Q

where are nicotinic receptors located

A

skeletal muscle
ganglia
smooth muscle

159
Q

what is the structure of nicotinic receptors

A

pentameric
2 alpha
beta gamma
sigma

160
Q

what are the excitatory amino acid transporters

A

NMDA
AMPA
AP-4
Kainate

161
Q

what are the inhibitory amino acid transporter

A

muscimol

baclofen

162
Q

function of GABA

A

major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS

163
Q

what does histamine sub type 1 produce

A

vasodilation

increased vascular permeability

164
Q

what does histamine receptor sub type 2 produce

A

stimulates gastric acid secretion

165
Q

what does phenylketonuria affect

A

phenylalanine hydroxylase

166
Q

what chromosome does phenylketonuria affect and the genetic property of the disease

A

chromosome 12

autosomal recessive

167
Q

what are the effects of phenylketonuria

A

mental retardation
organ damage
unusual posture

168
Q

how many people does phenylketonuria affect and what needs to be done for sufferers

A

1/20,000

low Phe diet

169
Q

what is a glycogen storage disease

A

inability to convert glycogen to glucose
leads to:
hypoglycaemia
enlarged liver

170
Q

in glycogen storage disease V what is absent

A

glycogen phosphorylase

171
Q

what causes hypercholesterolaemia

A

defect in LDL-R gene

Biomed (9 decks)

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