Biochem Flashcards
basic functional and structural unit of life
Cell
Plant cell wall
Cellulose
Bacteria cell wall
Peptidoglycan
Fungi cell wall
Chitin
Parts of the cell membrane
- Phospholipids
- Glycoproteins and Glycolipids
- Cholesterol
- Arachidonic Acid
powerhouse of the cell; produces ATP (energy)
Mitochondrion
responsible for protein synthesis
Ribosomes
Types of ribosomes in prokaryotes
Prokaryote: 30s, 50s = 70s
Types of ribosomes in eukaryotes
Eukaryote: 40s, 60s = 80s
suicide bag of the cell
Lysosomes
has enzymes and free radicals (when released, will cause APOPTOSIS)
Lysosomes
Red blood cells lifespan
120 days
Red blood cells lifespan (Hemolytic anemia)
< 120 days
Organelle responsible for lipid-synthesis
Smooth ER
Organelle responsible for protein synthesis
Rough ER
Organelle responsible packaging and storage of substances in the cell
Golgi apparatus
It is the control center of the cell
Nucleus
tightly coiled DNA strands (46 chromosomes)
Chromosomes
How many pairs of chromosomes do we have
23 pairs (46 in total)
It is the site of ribosome assembly
Nucleolus
Parts of the nucleus
Chromosomes
Nucleolus
Nuclear membrane
First products of photosynthesis
Carbohydrates
It is a nonreducing sugar
Sucrose
These are invert sugars.
Glucose and Fructose
Sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed further
Monosaccharides
Characterized by the number of C atoms in the molecules
Monosaccharides
The most important monosaccharide
Hexoses
Aldohexose
Dextrose, Blood sugar, Grape sugar, Physiologic sugar
Glucose
Ketohexose
Reducing sugar
Fruit sugar; sweet fruits and honey
Fructose
aka Levulose, the sweetest monosaccharide
Fructose
It is readily absorbed in the intestines; biosynthesized in mammary glands
Galactose
Examples of hexoses
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Mannose
found in Gum Arabic/Acacia
Arabinose
found in RNA
Ribose
found in DNA
Deoxyribose
isomers that differ in only 1 C
Epimers
Epimers of Glucose:
C2 – mannose
C4 – galactose
Examples of Pentoses
Arabinose
Ribose
Deoxyribose
Glucose + Fructose
Sucrose
Glucose + Glucose (α-1,4)
Maltose
Glucose + Glucose (β-1,4)
Cellybiose
Glucose + Galactose
Lactose
Examples of Disaccharides
Sucrose
Maltose
Cellybiose
Lactose
An oligosaccharide which is product of starch degradation
Dextrin
It is the only reagent that can dissolve cellulose
Schweitzer’s Reagent:
The sum total of all chemical reactions needed to maintain life
Metabolism
building up
Anabolism
breaking down
Catabolism
combination [ex. Krebs cycle]
Amphibolism
energy consuming
Endergonic
energy producing
Exergonic
- Energy currency of the cell
- Links anabolic and catabolic reactions
- Composed of ADP + P + Energy
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
- Entails the formation of 1 unit of ATP per unit of metabolite transformed
- Does not need O2
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
- Entails the formation of 2 or 3 units of ATP per unit of metabolite transformed.
- Uses co-enzymes: FAD and NAD
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Glucose → pyruvate
Glycolysis
Pyruvate → Acetyl CoA
Intermediate Step
Acetyl CoA → CO2 + ATP
Krebs Cycle
Removal of carbon dioxide
Decarboxylation
During intermediate reactions ( formation of acetyl coA), in anaerobic reactions, pyruvic acid is converted to
Lactic acid
During intermediate reactions (formation of acetyl coA), in awrobic reactions, pyruvic acid is converted to
Acetyl CoA, which enters the Krebs Cycle
The krebs’ cycle is commonly known as the
Tricarboxylic acid cycle
final electron acceptor in electron transport chain
O2
Products of Electron Transport Chain
ATP + H2O
Glucose -> Glycogen
Glycogenesis
Hormone responsible in Glycogenesis
Insulin
- Occurs in emergency situations
- Glycogen -> Glucose
Glycogenolysis
Hormone responsible in Glycogenolysis
Epinephrine or Adrenaline
glucose supply for 12-14 hours
Glycogen
Stored in the liver, kidneys, and intestinal epithelium
Glycogen
Glucose is synthesized from noncarbohydrate materials (lactate, glycerol, amino acids), proteins, fats, and other sources
Gluconeogenesis
Pancreatic hormones
α – Glucagon
β – Insulin
Fewer covalent bonds due to decrease in oxygen concentration
Lipids
Hydrophobic: they are not soluble in plasma, thus, are covered with proteins (LIPOPROTEINS)
Lipids
carrying lipids in the body
Lipoproteins
Carries cholesterol from vessels to liver where it is metabolized
HDL/Good Chloesterol
Deposits cholesterol to other parts of the body
LDL/Bad Cholesterol
- Energy storage
- Components: Glycerol + Fatty acids
Triglycerides
Membrane lipids
Glycerol + Fatty acid + Phosphoric acid + Organic molecule/Polar head group
Phospholipids/Phosphoglycerides
ID Test for choline
Rosenheim Test
Component of cell membrane, Component of myelin sheath
Sphingolipids/Glycolipids/Glycosphingolipids
Cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene (CPPP) nucleus
Steroids
precursor of other steroids
Cholesterol
Animal sterols
Cholesterol
Plant sterols
Phytosterol or β-sitosterol
Fungi sterols
Ergosterol
Soybean sterol
Stigmasterol
Produced by liver, Stored in gallbladder
Function: emulsification of fats
Bile salts
Sunshine vitamin, needed for calcium absorption
Vitamin D
Precursors of Vitamin D
- 7-dehydrocholesterol -> Cholecalciferol or Vit. D3
- Ergosterol -> Ergocalciferol or Vit. D2
woman’s secondary characteristics
Progesterone
Estrogen
regulates hormone & electrolyte imbalance (deficiency Diabetes insipidus)
Vasopressin
Saturated Fatty Acids
16C Palmitic (most abundant FA)
20C Arachidic
12C Lauric
14C Myristic
18C Stearic
10C Capric
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
18:1 Oleic
18:2 Linoleic
18:3 Linolenic (dietary precursor of PGE)
18:4 Arachidonic (precursor of PGE)
Vitamin F (essential FAs):
Oleic, Linoleic, Linolenic
of mg of KOH required to Neutralize the free acids in 1g
Acid Value
of mg of KOH required to Saponify the esters on 1 g
Ester Value
of mg of KOH required to
Neutralize free fatty acids and saponify esters
SV/Koettsdorfer
of KOH equivalent to OH content of 1 g subs
Hydroxyl Value
of mg of Iodine absorbed by 100 g substance
Iodine Value
Drying >120 (linseed, fish)
Semidrying 100-120 (cottonseed, sesame)
Nondrying <120 (olive, almond)
Most abundant biomolecule (70% of the body)
Proteins
Building blocks of proteins
Amino Acids
Proteins are Amphoteric; At physiologic pH (isoelectric point, pH 7.4), exists as
zwitterions
the bond that joins each amino acid
Peptide bond
only amino acid without an amino group; It has an imino group (Imino acid)
Proline (Pro, P)
simplest amino acid (R group is Hydrogen); only amino acid that is not optically active
Glycine (Gly, G)
It is a sequence of a chain of amino acids.
- Peptide bonds
Primary proteins
- Twisting and folding
occurs when the sequence of amino acids are linked by hydrogen bonds
Secondary proteins
occurs when certain attractions are present between alpha helices and pleated sheets
Tertiary proteins
- Arrangement of polypeptide chains
is a protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain.
Quaternary Proteins
Acted upon by H2O/enzymes/acid
Proteans
Acted upon by acid or alkali
Metaproteins
Acted upon by alcohol or heat
Coagulated proteins
Secondary derived protein with
Highest MW group
Proteoses
Secondary derived protein with Intermediate MW
Peptones
Secondary derived protein with Lowest MW group
Peptides
formed from progressive hydrolysis of protein
Secondary derived proteins
Denatured Proteins
Primary derived proteins
nonprotein substances + AA
Conjugated Proteins
skin and cartilage
Collagen
vessels, dermis, tendon
Elastin
hair and nails
Keratin
cell membrane
Glycoproteins
thin & moving filament
Actin
thick & stationary
Myosin
egg white
Ovalbumin
milk
Casein
immunoglobulins for secretion
IgA
smallest immunoglobulin
IgG
allergy immunoglobulin
IgE
largest immunoglobulin ; first Ig produced during infection
IgM
oxygen carriers
Myoglobin / Hgb
transport form of Fe
Transferrin
storage form of Fe
Ferritin
- Colloids that are soluble in water
- Work best at temperatures between 35-40°C (optimal: 37°C)
Enzymes
o Activity is dependent on pH of the medium
o Highly selective (follows the principle of Lock and Key)
Enzymes
vitamin cofactors
Co-enzymes
– inactive form of an enzyme
Zymogens or Proenzymes
– protein part of an enzyme
Apoenzymes
– nonprotein part of an enzyme
Cofactor
– catalytically active enzyme (P+NP)
Holoenzyme
• Oxidation-reduction metabolism
• Ex. Dehydrogenases, oxidases, peroxidases
Oxidoreductases
• Transfer of groups, such as phosphate & amino
• Ex. kinases
Transferases
• Hydrolyze substrates
• Proteolytic enzymes, amylases, esterases
Hydrolases
•Removal of functional groups by means other than hydrolysis
•Ex. Decarboxylases, deaminases
Lyases
•Catalyze the coupling of 2 molecules •Ex. DNA ligase
Ligases
•Catalyze various isomerizations, such as the change from D- to L- form
Isomerases
– enzyme found in salivary glands
Amylase and Diastase (Ptyalin)
enzyme in pancreas
Amylopsin
enzyme that converts CHO to OH and CO2
Zymase
– enzyme that breaks down cyanogenic glycosides
Emulsin
– enzyme that breaks down isothiocyanate glycosides
Myrosin
enzyme that breaks down lipids into glycerol + fatty acids (Lipolysis)
Lipase
Urea(waste product of break down of proteins) —> ammonia
Urease
Made up of chains of nucleotides
Nucleic acids
links sugar and base
Glycosidic bond
links sugar and phosphate
Phosphodiester bond
Purine (2 rings)
Guanine
Adenine
It is only found in DNA
Thymine
It is only found in RNA
Uracil
Double helix – Watson and Crick
Coiled strands containing the genetic code
DNA
- unique sequence of nucleotide
- base or nucleotide sequence
Primary DNa
- DNA double helix
- H bonds
Secondary DNA
- supercoilingchromosomes
- DNA gyrase/topoisomerase II facilitates supercoiling
Tertiary DNA
Information stored in DNA is transferred to RNA and then expressed in the structure of proteins
Information Transmission
messenger; “template” for transcription
mRNA
transfer; carrying amino acids to sites of protein synthesis
tRNA
ribosomal RNA
rRNA
Information in mRNA translated into primary sequence of a protein in 4 steps:
Start codon: AUG (methionine)
Stop codons: UAA, UAG, UGA
Translation (Protein Synthesis
A change in shape, structure, and nucleotide sequence
Mutation
Codon containing the changed base may code for the same amino acid
Silent Mutation
- Codon containing the changed base codes for a different amino acids
- Causes disease
Missense Mutation
- Codon containing the changed base may become a stop codon
Nonsense Mutation
Organic substances, not synthesized within the body, that are essential in small amounts for the maintenance of
normal metabolic functions
Vitamins
Absorption from the intestinal tract is associated with that of lipids and a deficiency state may be caused by
conditions that impair fat absorption
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
For Vision, growth, tissue differentiation
Vitamin A
- Most toxic vitamin
- Most stable vitamin
Vitamin A (Retinol)
Sunshine vitamin; Ca and PO4 absorption
Vitamin D
- Synergistic with Se
- Antioxidant
Vitamin E (α-tocopherol)
For Prothrombin formation
Vitamin K (2-methyl-1,4- naphthoquinone)
- Decarboxylation (CHO, AA)
- Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff
B1 (Thiamine)
- Redox coenzyme, FAD
- Stomatitis, Chelitis, Glossitis
- SE: yellow urine
B2 (Riboflavin)
- Redox coenzyme, NAD
- Pellagra, Dementia, Dermatitis, Diarrhea
B3 (Niacin)
Acetyl CoA
- Secretion of hormones (cortisone)
- Paresthesias of the extremities or “burning foot” syndrome
B5 (Pantothenic acid)
Transamination, Decarboxylation (CHO, AA), RBC metabolism
B6 (Pyridoxine)
Folate —> FH2 —> Tetrahydrofolic acid (liver & plasma)
- Megaloblastic anemia Macrocytic anemia
B9 (Folic acid)
- RBC synthesis
- Metabolism of Folic Acid
- Pernicious Anemia
B12 (Cobalamin)
Most active B12
Cyanocobalamin
B12 for CN toxicity associated with Na nitroprusside
Hydroxocobalamin
Precursor of folic acid
Added as an accessory food factor
Para-aminobenzoic Acid (PABA)
Used for rheumatic fever and other conditions benefiting from salicylate therapy; UV sunscreen in topical
preparations
Interferes with the antibacterial action of sulfonamides
Para-aminobenzoic Acid (PABA)
Occur in egg yolk, animal organs, fish, milk, cereal grains, fruits and root vegetables
Essential nutrient in certain higher animals
Choline (B-hydroxyethyltrimethylammonium hydroxide)
USE: lipotropic agent in conditions such as liver cirrhosis, Huntington’s chorea, presenile dementia and
tardive dyskinesia
Choline
Implicated in membrane transport of amino acids and K and Na ions
Large doses may cause moderate diarrhea
Inositol
Inadequate vitamin intake can result not only from a poor diet but also from alcoholism, increased needs during pregnancy and lactation, prolonged broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy and the course of parenteral nutrition.
Multivitamin Therapy
It facilitates supercoiling
DNA gyrase/topoisomerase II
Programmed cell death
Apoptosis
Accidental cell death
Necrosis
Accidental cell death
Necrosis
o Occurs in the CYTOSOL
an anabolic pathway, responsible for generating pentoses and reducing equivalents in the form of NADPH
Pentose phosphate pathway
Test for carbohydrates
Molisch’s Test
Tests for reducing sugars
Benedict’s
Barfoed’s (Monosaccharides)
Tollen’s (Aldehydes)
Picric Acid
Nylanders
Moore’s (Glucose)
Test for Mannose
Osazone/Kowarsky
Test for ketohexose (fructose)
Seliwanoff
Test for deoxy sugars
Keller-Killiani
Test for galactose
Mucic acid Test
Test for pentoses
Bial’s Test
Excess triglycerides are deposited in adipose tissues
Waste products of b oxidation
Acetoacetic acid
B-hydroxybutyric acid
Acetone
medical term for gallstones
Cholelith
contracts gallbladder to release bile
Cholecystokinin
most sensitive; test for presence of cholesterol
Liebermann-Burchard Test
N terminal – Phenylalanine
C terminal - Glycine
Polypeptide chain arranged in tightly parallel fibers and sheets
Fibrous
Polypeptide chains are arranged in compact, spherical forms; insoluble in water
Globular
waste product of breakdown of PURINES
Uric Acid
